Investigated attitude and related learning factors a content analysis of English educational research reports

i

INVESTIGATED ATTITUDE AND RELATED

LEARNING FACTORS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF

ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH REPORTS

A Thesis

Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) in English Language Studies

SUPRIYANI 156332008

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

i

INVESTIGATED ATTITUDE AND RELATED

LEARNING FACTORS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF

ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH REPORTS

A Thesis

Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) in English Language Studies

SUPRIYANI 156332008

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

A THESIS

INVESTIGATED ATTITUDE AND RELATED

LEARNII\G

FACTORS:

A CONTENT ANALYSIS

OF

ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH

REPORTS

Dr. J. Bismoko

TI{ESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE

INWESTIGATED ATTITUDE

AIYD

RELATEI)

LEARNING

FACTORS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS

OF

ENGLISH

EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCII

REPORTS

Presented by

Supriyani

Student Number: I 56332008

Was defended in front ofthe Thesis Committee

and Declarcd Acceptable

Chairperson

Secretary

Member Member

Thesis Committee Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A.

Dr. J. Bismoko

F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum.

lll

fLe-&

14 Jttly ZAfi Program Director

STATEMENT

_OT

_ORIGINALITY

This is to certifu that this thesis is definitely my original work.

I

am completely

responsible for the content of this thesis. Otlrer writers' opinions or findings included

in _{this project are quoted or iited in accordance with ethnical standard. I understand} the

full

con$equences including degree cancellation

if

I

took somebody else,s ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta,T Jaly2017

e$$,

_Supriyani

v

MOTTO

LE

MBAR

PE

RNYATAAN

PE RS E

TAJAAN

PTTB

LIKAS

I

KARYA

ILMIAH

UNTUK

KEPENTINGAN

AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama

: Supriyani

Nomor

Mahasiswa

: 156332008

Demi pengernbangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

INVESTIGATED ATTITUDE AND RELATED LEARNING FACTORS: A

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCII

RE,PORTS

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan data dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data,

mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di intemet atau media

lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta

ijin

dari saya maupun

memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantukan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Dernikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 7 Juli 2017 Yang menyatakan

vi Supriyani

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to give my endless gratitude to Allah SWT for giving me everything in my life so that I can finish this thesis entitled “Investigated Attitude and Related Learning Factors: A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports”. Without Allah’s guidance, this thesis writing could not have been accomplished.

I would also like to convey my gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr. J. Bismoko, who has guided me and given some suggestions in finishing this thesis with a great patience. I was also blessed to have Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., and F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. as my thesis reviewers and Dr. E. Sunarto, M. Hum. as my thesis examiner who opened up my limited knowledge I had during this thesis writing. Indeed, their suggestions have broadened my insight in thesis writing.

The special gratitude to my beloved parents, Kemisah and Jinal. Thank you for raising, educating and loving me. Thank you for the unstoppable support from my uncle Tukiran, my aunt Susilawati and my cousins Yoga and Shinta. To all of my precious friends, Asri Nurwardani, Dewi Sundari, Yulia Adhyaksa, Eni Yuniasih, Putri Dwi Aprianti, Widayati Mia Pratiwi, Puput Kusumawati, Uswatun Khasanah, Nunung Khusnul Khotimah, and the special ones Monica Sindhi Galih Susanti and Agatha Lisa who struggled together with me during the thesis writing. I am so lucky to have you all beside me.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv

MOTTO ...v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...x

LIST OF FIGURES ... xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

ABSTRAK ... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION...1

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ... 5

C. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ... 6

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 6

E. RESEARCH GOALS ... 6

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS ... 7

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ...9

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW... 9

1. Competence-Based Learning ... 9

a. History and Overview ... 9

b. The Implementation of Competence-Based Learning in Indonesia ... 11

2. Attitude ... 15

a. Narrow Meanings ... 15

b. Broad Meanings ... 17

c. Attitude toward English Language Learning... 20

d. Attitude and Related Learning Factors ... 22

3. English Learning Factors ... 24

a. Motivation ... 24

b. Perception ... 25

c. Belief ... 26

d. Learning Style ... 27

e. Learning Strategy ... 28

4. English Educational Research Reports ... 29

5. Classification Area of English ... 34

a. Inner-Circle Countries ... 34

ix

c. Expanding-Circle Countries ... 35

6. Content Analysis ... 36

a. Definition and Function ... 36

b. Types ... 38

c. Procedures of Conducting Content Analysis ... 40

B. RELATED STUDIES ... 43

C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 45

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ...48

A. RESEARCH GOALS AND METHOD ... 48

B. NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA ... 49

C. INSTRUMENTS ... 51

D. DATA GATHERING ... 51

E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ... 53

F. VALIDITY ... 54

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...56

A. ANALYSIS RESULTS ... 56

1. Investigated Topic ... 57

2. Concept Clarification of Attitude and Related Learning Factors ... 59

3. Related Topic ... 62

4. Origin ... 64

5. Participant ... 65

6. Research Goal ... 67

7. Research Design and Method ... 70

8. Data Gathering Instrument ... 72

9. Data Analysis Technique ... 74

10. Sampling Technique ... 75

11. Validation Technique ... 77

12. Research Result ... 78

B. DISCUSSION ... 82

1. The Trends of Research on Attitude and Related Learning Factors in English Education ... 82

2. The Relation between The Trends of Research on Attitude and Related Learning Factors and Competence-based Learning ... 83

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ..92

A. CONCLUSIONS ... 92

B. IMPLICATIONS ... 95

C. SUGGESTIONS ... 96

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...98

APPENDICES ...104

Appendix 1: Data Sources ... 104

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The Classification of National Education Goals ...12

Table 2.2 The Graduate Competence Standards of 2013 Curriculum ...14

Table 2.3 Values of Cultural Education and Character of 2013 Curriculum ...18

Table 3.1 The Content of the Investigated Research Reports ...52

Table 4.1 Concept Clarification of Attitude and Related Learning Factors in English Education ... 60

Table 4.2 Research Goals ...68

Table 4.3 Research Results ...78

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 The Balance among Three Competences of 2013 Curriculum ...13

Figure 2.2 A Framework for Content Analysis ...41

Figure 2.4 Framework of Pre-understannding ...47

Figure 4.1 Investigated Topics ...58

Figure 4.2 Related Topics ...62

Figure 4.3 Origin of the Research Reports ...64

Figure 4.4 Participants ...66

Figure 4.5 Research Design and Methods ...71

Figure 4.6 Data Gathering Instruments ...73

Figure 4.7 Data Analysis Techniques ...74

Figure 4.8 Sampling Techniques ...76

xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CBL Competence-based Learning CBE Competence-based Education ECC Expanding-Circle Countries OCC Outer-Circle Countries ICC Inner-Circle Countries

ENL English as a Native Language EFL English as a Foreign Language ESL English as a Second Language

xiii

ABSTRACT

Supriyani. 2017. Investigated Attitude and Related Learning Factors: A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program, English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Competence-based Learning (CBL) is implemented as current approach in education. The implementation of this approach resulted in a large number of research which had been conducted on attitude, skills and knowledge in English education. It leads to the emergence of certain trends.Among the three competences in CBL, the researcher wanted to focus on attitude only. Thus, this research aims to find out the trends of English educational research on attitude and five related learning factors namely motivation, perception, belief, leaning style and learning strategy. The terms attitude within this research is divided into two namely narrow and broad meanings. Attitude in narrow meaning refers to a variable consisting of affective, behavior and cognitive components which is commonly divided into positive and negative. Meanwhile attitude in broad meaning is derived from 2013 Curriculum. It comprises of spiritual and social, including 18 character values. Five related learning factors in this research affect the formation of attitude, hence, they are also examined.

This research is a content analysis. One hundred research reports dealing with attitude and five related learning factors were collected from open sources as the data sources. Most of them were taken from TEFLIN Proceedings, TEFLIN Journals, Indonesian Journal of English Education and International Journal of English and Education. The instrument of this research is the researcher herself who utilized keywords to collect research reports from open sources and a table to manage the data. The data were firstly analyzed by using the table which was designed in Microsoft Excel to discover the occurrences. The results of this quantitative analysis were presented in charts and tables, and followed by explanation. Then the relation between research trends and the concept of attitude in Competence-based Learning was examined through interpretation.

The results of research trends revealed English educational researches had explored several topics on attitude and related learning factors with the findings as follows: motivation (22.6%), perception (21.7%), attitude (19.1% in its narrow meaning and 0.9% in its broad meaning), belief (12.2%), learning strategy (10.4%), learning style (6.1%), preference (2.6%), creativity (1.7%), confidence (0.9%), honesty (0.9%) and tolerance (0.9%). These topics were commonly associated with teaching methods, English skills and knowledge. University student was found as the most common research subject. The studied research reports were conducted both quantitatively (using descriptive statistics) and qualitatively (using qualitative analysis). Questionnaire and interview were found as the most frequently used instruments. Both sampling and validity techniques were used in a small number of research. In terms of research results, most of the participants hold positive attitude, perception, belief towards English language teaching and learning. Meanwhile the results of latent analysis revealed that many topics of attitude in CBL had not been explored. However, the principle of CBL had been yielded. Therefore, it is suggested for future researchers to conduct research on other unexplored topics related to attitude in its broad meaning, such as curiosity, responsibility and so on,so that the development of English education, particularly regarding to attitude in CBL can be exposed.

xiv

ABSTRAK

Supriyani. 2017. Investigated Attitude and Related Learning Factors: A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris. Program Pascasarjana. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Pembelajaran Berbasis Kompetensi (PBK) telah diterapkan sebagai pendekatan dalam bidang pendidikan saat ini. Penerapan pendekatan ini menyebabkan banyaknya penelitian yang dilakukan dalam pendidikan Bahasa Inggris mengenai sikap, keterampilan dan pengetahuan. Hal ini mengarah pada munculnya tren tertentu. Di antara tiga kompetensi, peneliti hanya fokus pada konsep sikap dalam PBK. Oleh sebab itu penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tren dalam penelitian tentang sikap dan lima faktor pembelajaran terkait yaitu motivasi, persepsi, keyakinan, gaya belajar, dan strategi belajar. Istilah sikap dalam penelitian ini dikategorikan menjadi dua, yakni artian sempit dan luas. Sikap dalam arti sempit adalah sebuah variabel yang terdiri dari komponen afektif, perilaku dan kognitif yang umumnya dibedakan menjadi positif dan negatif. Sementara sikap dalam arti luas berasal dari Kurikulum 2013 yang terdiri dari spiritual dan sosial, termasuk di dalamnya 18 nilai karakter. Lima sifat terkait dalam penelitian ini mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap, sehingga perlu untuk diteliti.

Penelitian ini merupakan analisis isi. Sumber data dalam penelitian ini adalah seratus laporan penelititan yang membahas tentang sikap dan faktor pembelajaran terkait yang diambil dari sumber terbuka (internet). Hampir semuanya diambil dari TEFLIN Proceedings, TEFLIN Journals, Indonesian Journal of English Education dan International Journal of English and Education. Instrumen dalam penelitian ini adalah peneliti sendiri yang menggunakan kata kunci untuk menemukan laporan penelitian dari sumber terbuka dan tabel untuk mengelola data. Pertama, data tersebut dianalisis menggunakan tabel yang dibuat di Microsoft Excel untuk mengetahui frekuensi kemunculan. Hasil dari analisis kuantitatif ini ditampilkan dalam grafik dan tabel yang diikuti dengan penjelasan. Kemudian, keterkaitan antara tren dalam penelitian dan konsep sikap dalam Pembelajaran Berbasis Kompetensi dianalisis berdasarkan interpretasi.

Hasil dari tren penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penelitian dalam pendidikan Bahasa Inggris telah meneliti beberapa topik tentang sikap dan faktor pembelajaran terkait. Topik-topik tersebut adalah motivasi (22.6%), persepsi (21.7%), sikap (19.1% dalam arti sempit dan 0.9% dalam arti luas), keyakinan (12.2%), strategi belajar (10.4%), gaya belajar (6.1%), kecenderungan (2.6%), kreativitas (1.7%), rasa percaya diri (0.9%), kejujuran (0.9%), dan toleransi (0.9%). Topik-topik ini umumnya dikaitkan dengan metode mengajar, keterampilan dan pengetahuan Bahasa Inggris. Subyek penelitian yang paling banyak ditemukan adalah mahasiswa. Penilitian-penilitian tersebut telah dilakukan baik secara kuantitatif (dengan menggunakan statistika deskriptif) maupun kualitatif (dengan analis kualitatif). Kuesioner dan wawancara merupakan instrumen yang paling banyak digunakan. Penggunaan sampel dan validitas dalam penelitian-penelitian tersebut masih cukup jarang. Dalam hal hasil penelitian, kebanyakan dari subyek penelitian menunjukkan sikap, persepsi dan keyakinan yang positif

terhadap pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Sementara itu, hasil dari analisis laten

mengungkapkan bahwa masih banyak topik-topik tentang sikap dalam PBK yang masih

belum diteliti. Akan tetapi, prinsip PBK sudah diterapkan.Oleh karenanya, disarankan untuk

melakukan penelitian terhadap topik-topik yang berhubungan dengan konsep sikap dalam arti luas yang belum diteliti, seperti rasa ingin tahu, tanggung jawab dan lainnya, agar perkembangan pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, terutama yang berkaitan dengan sikap dalam PBK dapat diungkapkan.

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This initial chapter is intended to uncover the background underlying this research. This chapter consists of six parts namely research background, problem identification, scope of the study, problem formulation, research goals and research benefits.

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND

In the attempt to fulfill today’s world demands and challenges, preparing young generation is one of the most possible solution to do. It has been widely known that education can facilitate young generation to have good knowledge and ability. Education, as pointed out by Hadi (2015), is not solely an effort to transfer knowledge, but also to develop the students’ character so that they will become individuals with high intelligence and good character. Therefore, having good education will be beneficial.

It has been widely known that today’s education is more on student-centered. This kind of change leads to the emergence of Competence-based Learning. Sánchez and Ruiz (2008) highlight that this approach has been used in Europe and US education system. The goal of this approach is to endow students with knowledge and to enable them to apply such knowledge in various contexts. This can be realized by developing students’ knowledge which is integrated along

with attitude and character values which are integrated in ways that are appropriate for each student’s personal and professional life.

In Indonesia, the implementation of Competence-based Learning in education started over ten years ago. For higher education, this approach has been used since the year of 2000 in developing the higher education curriculum (The Decree of National Ministry of Education No. 232/U/2000 and No. 045/U/2002). Meanwhile for school level, it is emphasized in Competency-Based Curriculum in 2004, School-Level Curriculum in 2006 and emphasized more in 2013 Curriculum. The focus of this 2013 Curriculum (the latest curriculum in Indonesia) as stated by Mulyasa (2014) is to develop students’ competences (attitude, skills and knowledge) and characters. Though this notion, it can be inferred that attitude, skills and knowledge are seen as the essential consideration within the education and teaching learning process.

Due to the existence of Competence-based Learning in education field, topics on attitude, skills and knowledge have become the researchers’ interest since several years ago. Therefore, a large number of research which have been conducted in education field, including English education, tended to investigate about these competences (Lin and Cheng, 2010). Besides, their study also revealed that teaching method was found as the most studied topic along with these competences.

In line with the development of research in English education, a research should be conducted to identify how far research in English education, particularly in Indonesia, has exposed the implementation of Competence-based

Learning. Therefore, this research is conducted collaboratively with two other researchers in order to cover those topics (three competences and teaching method). This research focuses on investigating attitude and related learning factors namely motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy in English educational research reports which were published within the last ten years. The two other researchers focus on examining skills, knowledge and teaching method. Hence, in conducting this research the researcher shares the similar concept with those two researches. The similarities are on the method, instrument, and procedure of both data gathering and data analysis.

The term attitude itself refers to “a complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs, values, behaviors and motivations” (Pickens, 2005: 44). Eagly and Chaiken (1998, in Jain, 2014) state that attitude is constructed of three components namely affective (feeling or emotion), behavior (ways of act), and cognitive (thought, belief, perception, opinion). Meanwhile, attitude in language learning can be defined as “a collection of feelings regarding language use and its status in the society. The feelings are good, bad and neutral.” (Ahmed, 2015: 1). These definitions depict how important attitude for an individual is, particularly when it comes to learning. These definitions are considered as the narrow meaning of attitude. Mokhtar (2015) points out that attitude is important in understanding and improving learning processes.

The concept of attitude in Competence-based Learning, particularly as practiced in 2013 Curriculum is actually different from the narrow meaning of attitude. This 2013 Curriculum differentiates attitude into spiritual and social.

From these two broad classifications eighteen character values (e.g. religious, honest, tolerance, responsible, etc.) are derived. This concept of attitude can be determined as the broad meaning of attitude. On the other hand, attitude in narrow meaning, as highlighted by Brown (2001), is commonly divided into positive and negative (or good and bad).

Attitude in language learning has a relation with several learning factors such as motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy. Despagne (2010) mentions that attitude influences the formation of individual’s motivation. Bahamonde-Birke, Kunert, Link and Ortúzar (2015) assert that perception affects the formation of attitude through cognitive side. Similarly, belief is also found to affect attitude formation from the cognitive side (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998, in Jain, 2014). Furthermore, learning style is considered as one of the factors affecting the formation of attitude through behavior side (Caliskan and Kilinc, 2012). Regarding to learning strategy, as stated by Oxford (1990, in Msuya, 2016), attitude is found as one of the factors affecting learners in selecting what kind of strategy they want to use during language learning. Hence, the investigation of attitude within this research involves those five learning factors as well.

Considering that Competence-based Learning in Indonesia has been implemented for more than ten years, English educational research on attitude which were published within the last ten years should represent the development of attitude in broad meaning rather than narrow meaning. Therefore, this research is intended to find out how far English educational research on attitude and related

learning factors namely motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy have represented Competence-based Learning, particularly concerning the concept of attitude as practiced in 2013 Curriculum.

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Competence-based Learning has been implemented in English education in Indonesia for more than ten years. The implementation of this approach generates the emergence of three competences namely attitude, skills and knowledge. Therefore, a large number of research in English education had been conducted on these three competences. The numerous number of research on these three topics leads to the emergence of certain trends.

Unfortunately, there is a limited number of research investigating the trends of research in English education. Particularly, in terms of attitude, in which two different concepts exist. The first concept is attitude in general which classifies attitude into positive and negative (attitude in narrow meaning). Another concept is attitude in Competence-based Learning which differentiates attitude into spiritual and social (attitude in broad meaning). Whereas, discovering the trends can provide information on the current interest as well as the development or progress of English education. Indeed, decision making and even an adjustment can be made through utilizing the results of trends. These are attempted to improve English education so that it will become more effective and better quality can be achieved.

C. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Due to the limited time and access to the data sources, some limitations are determined. First, the limitation is related to the topic of the research reports being analyzed. This research focuses only on analyzing research reports which deal with attitude and related learning factors such as motivation, belief, perception, learning style and learning strategy in English education. Second limitation is on the year of publication. The researcher only analyzes research reports which were published in 2007 to 2016. Third limitation is on the origin of the research reports. The researcher wants to analyze research reports originated from Indonesia as the main focus. However, she also takes several others from Expanding-Circle Countries (ECC), Outer-Circle Countries (OCC) and Inner-Circle Countries (ICC). The researcher analyzes 100 research reports in which eighty of them are originated from Indonesia, ten of them are from ECC and five from each of OCC and ICC.

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION

This sections presents the problem of this research which is formulated into one research question. The question is what are the trends of research on attitude and related learning factors in English education?

E. RESEARCH GOALS

The main goal of this research is to discover the trends of research on attitude and related learning factors in English education. This goal can be

achieved through investigating the content of research reports which covers investigated topic, concept clarification of the topic being analyzed, related topic, origin, participant, goal, method, data gathering instrument, data analysis technique, sampling technique, validation technique and result. Moreover, this information leads to the relation between research trends on attitude and related learning factors in English education and Competence-based Learning as the current approach in English education, particularly concerning the concept of attitude as practiced in 2013 Curriculum.

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

This research provides both scientific and practical benefits. The scientific benefit of this research offers a description of research trends on attitude and related learning factors namely motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy in English education. Besides, it also provides a description of the relation between the research trends and the concept of attitude in Competence-based Learning, particularly as practiced in 2013 Curriculum.

The practical benefits are attempted for several parties such as educators, students, English educational researchers, university managers, and policy makers of English education. First, for both educators and students, the results can help them to understand more about attitude and five related learning factors (motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy) in English education. Second, for English educational researchers, the results of this research provide them with more up-to-date information on attitude and five related

learning factors which have been investigated, particularly concerning the concept of attitude in Competence-based Learning as practiced in 2013 Curriculum. Third, the university managers and policy makers of English education can utilize the results of this research as a source to develop a quality control in conducting research so that the students and future researchers will conduct research on the other unexplored topics. This will result in more contribution to the development of English education, particularly in the context of Competence-based Learning.

9

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter aims to clarify the concepts of the research. It discusses both main and supporting theories used within this research. It consists of three main sections which entail several sub-sections. The sections are theoretical review, related studies, and theoretical framework.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

In this section, the researcher explains some theories employed in this research. Those are Competence-based Learning, attitude, English learning factors, English educational research reports, classification area of English, and content analysis.

1. Competence-Based Learning

The notion of Competence-based Learning (CBL) has been widely known for its emergence which brings some changes in education realm. This part discusses the history and overview and its implementation in Indonesia.

a. History and Overview

The history of Competence-based Learning (CBL) can be traced back to the early 1970s when Competency-based Education (CBE) emerged for the first time in the United States. CBE itself refers to “an educational movement that advocates defining educational goals in terms of precise descriptions of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of

study” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 141). In other words, it focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning rather than the means of learning.

CBL according to Richards and Rodgers (2001) is the implementation of CBE principles in language teaching. It seeks to teach language in relation to the social contexts in which the language is used. Hence, the focus of learning has shifted from what the students know to what they can do with the language. In broader context, Sánchez and Ruiz (2008) assert that CBL is an approach to teaching and learning which focuses on the competences that students need to develop. O’Sullivan and Burce (2014: 3) define CBL as “a way of structuring learning activities so that the individual learner can meet a predetermined set of competencies”. Therefore, it can be concluded that CBL is an outcome-based approach to education which focuses on the competences that the students should possess at the end of learning.

Sánchez and Ruiz (2008:33) highlight that “to have CBL, it is a must to establish what competences are essential in today’s world”. Richards and Rodgers (2001: 144) assert that “competencies in CBL consist of a description of essential skills, knowledge and attitudes required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity”. Therefore, the goal of this CBL approach as stated is “to endow students with knowledge and to enable them to apply such knowledge in various contexts” (Sánchez and Ruiz, 2008: 33). Indeed, it can be done by developing students’ knowledge, along with skills, attitude and (character) values which are integrated.

b. The Implementation of Competence-Based Learning in Indonesia

In Indonesia, the implementation of CBL can be seen through the curriculum. There are three curricula which employ CBL: (1) Competency-based Curriculum (CBC) which was initiated in 2004, School-Level Curriculum (SLC) which was begun in 2006, and 2013 Curriculum as the latest curriculum (Subandi, 2014). CBC contains a set of planning and organization of competence to achieve national goal in adjustable environment and school potency (Department of National Education, 2004, in Subandi, 2014). SLC is operational curriculum which is arranged and performed by each unit of school (Management of Director General of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2009, in Subandi, 2014). Meanwhile 2013 Curriculum according to Yulia (2014) is the continuation and improvement of the previous curricula (CBL and SLC) which focuses on the competences as well as character building in order to achieve the goal of national education.

In regard to CBL, it can be stated that 2013 Curriculum (as the current curriculum in Indonesia) has emphasized each competence in more specific. Thus, the implementation of CBL in Indonesia can be best viewed from this curriculum. Tantra (2015) states that 2013 Curriculum is designed to respond the change of learning paradigm in today’s education from teacher-centered to learner-centered. Moreover, this 2013 Curriculum is also in line with the goal of national education. As stated in the Article 3, Constitution No. 20 Year 2003, the goal of national education is to develop the students’ potential to become a faithful, god-fearing, morally good, healthy, knowledgeable, skillful, creative, autonomous

person as well as a democratic and responsible citizen (cited in Kerangka dasar dan struktur kurikulum 2013). This goal encompasses several competences which can be differentiated into the following classification.

Table 2.1: The Classification of National Education Goals

Attitude

a. Spiritual attitude

Appreciating and internalizing the embraced religion b. Social attitude

Having good moral, healthy, independent, democratic and responsible

Knowledge Knowledgeable Skills Skillful and creative

Source: Kerangka dasar dan struktur kurikulum 2013

From the table it is clear the goal of national education is also focused on the three competences (attitude, knowledge and skills) which should be possessed by the students. The focus of 2013 Curriculum as emphasized by Mulyasa (2014) is also to develop students’ competences (attitude, skills and knowledge) and characters. In addition, as 2013 Curriculum is intended to build both of students’ soft ad hard skills, therefore the implementation of the three competences in teaching-learning process should be balance.

Figure 2.1: Three Competences of 2013 Curriculum (Kerangka dasar dan struktur kurikulum 2013, 2013)

Figure 2.1 presents the stages that should be achieved by each level of education within the context of the three competences. Different from the previous curriculum (SLC) which used merely Bloom’s taxonomy for knowledge competence, 2013 Curriculum has employed Krathwohl’s taxonomy for attitude, Dyers’ taxonomy for skills and Bloom’s taxonomy for knowledge as well. In terms of attitude, the stages in teaching-learning process begin with accepting, which is followed by responding, valuing, organizing or internalizing and characterizing or actualizing as the highest phase. Skills comprise observing, questioning, experimenting, associating, and communicating as the highest stage. Meanwhile, knowledge entails knowing/remembering as the lowest phase, understanding, applying, analyzing, the highest phase is evaluating. However, when the students have achieved the highest phase of skills and knowledge, they

are expected to be able to create, though this is intended for higher education level. These stages are then termed as scientific approach.

Table 2.2: The Graduate Competence Standards of 2013 Curriculum

Competence Standard

Attitude

- Having behavior that reflects a good attitude

- Pious, having good deeds, self-confident, and responsible for the social and natural environment

- Positioning oneself as a reflection of the nation in the international world

Skills

- Having thinking abilities and effective and creative actions in both abstract and concrete contexts

- Having developed skills taught at school based on students’ talents, interests, and abilities

Knowledge

- Having procedural and metacognitive knowledge in science, technology, arts, culture, and humanities with a national perspective

- Having knowledge about the cases of phenomena and events along with alternative solutions, hindrances, and final solutions (Konsep dan implementasi kurikulum 2013, 2014)

Considering the goal of national education and the fact that CBL is an outcome-based approach, therefore, at the end of the learning, the students are expected to pass the graduate competence standards presented in Table 2.2. In terms of attitude, students have to possess good attitude of both spiritual and social. For skills, the students are expected to be skillful and creative so that they will be able to perform well. Indeed, they should have good abilities. Meanwhile for knowledge, the students are expected to be knowledgeable (factual, conceptual and procedural). It means that they should understand both science and phenomena so that they will be able to solve problems with the support of enough knowledge. In short, the students are expected to be people with good attitude, character, skills and knowledge as well.

2. Attitude

The terms attitude is widely used in education, along with skill and knowledge. Therefore, having clear understanding about the meaning of this terms and its influences towards English language learning is essential. However, the emergence of attitude in Competence-based Learning, particularly in 2013 Curriculum leads to the different meaning of attitude which is broader.

a. Narrow Meanings

In general, Eagly and Chaiken (1993, as cited in Albarracín, Johnson and Zanna, 2005: 4) define attitude as “a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor”. However, when it comes to language learning, the terms attitude, according to Crytal (1997) refers to the feelings people have about language. Hence, it describes their behavior towards their own language or the languages of others. Moreover, Pickens (2005: 44) defines attitude as “a complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs, values, behaviors and motivations”.

Eagly and Chaiken (1998, as cited in Jain, 2014) state that attitude is constructed of three components: (1) affective, (2) behavior, and (3) cognitive. These components are known as ABC model of attitude. Affective component deals with feeling or emotional response (liking or disliking) towards an object of attitude. Behavior component is the tendency to act in certain ways (favorable or unfavorable) toward an object of attitude. Cognitive component refers to an individual’s thought, belief, perception, opinion, and idea about the object of attitude. It can be belief or disbelief.

The formation of attitude is influenced by various factors from both internal and external. One of the factors is motivation. Deci and Ryan (2000, in Despagne, 2010) highlight that attitude can be created by extrinsic and/or intrinsic motivation. For instance, in the context of language learning, when a learner has high motivation, she or he tends to hold good attitude. Furthermore, Pickens (2005: 47) asserts that “attitude formation is a result of learning, modeling others, and individual’s direct experiences with people and situations”. In addition, Dӧrnyei (2003, in Despagne, 2010) also states that attitude is created and can be changed through four factors namely family, teacher, peer and school. When an individual interact with others, she or he can be affected by others and vice versa. In short, considering that it is influenced by various factors, individual’s attitude can also vary.

Walley et al. (2009, Jain, 2014) mention that attitude is generally positive or negative. As they believe that attitude is judgement which means that it is a view of an object (person, place, thing, or event). However, sometimes people may also have neutral attitude. Gardner (1985) mentions that there are two types of attitude in language learning: (1) attitude toward learning the language, which is relevant to educational attitude and (2) attitude towards the language community which is relevant to social attitude. Educational attitude includes attitude towards teacher, the course, and learning the language. Social attitude, on the other hand, focuses on the cultural implication of second language acquisition (SLA). Gardner believes that these two types of attitude influence the achievement in second language learning. However, he claims that attitude

towards learning the language is more closely related to achievement than attitude towards the second language community.

b. Broad Meanings

The broad meaning of attitude emerges from the implementation of Competence-based Learning (CBL) as the current education system in Indonesia. Due to the implementation of 2013 Curriculum (as the current curriculum in Indonesia), attitude has received more attention. This is because 2013 Curriculum is intended to achieve the goal of Indonesian national education which emphasizes attitude and character, along with skills and knowledge. Based on Article 3, Constitution No. 20 Year 2003, the goal of national education is to develop the students’ potential to become a faithful, god-fearing, morally good, healthy, knowledgeable, skillful, creative, autonomous person as well as a democratic and responsible citizen (cited in Kerangka dasar dan struktur kurikulum 2013). Derived from this goal, the terms attitude is divided into spiritual and social. Spiritual attitude deals with individuals’ attitude related to their religion in which they have to appreciate and internalize the embraced religion. Meanwhile, social attitude refers to individuals’ attitude within the society which define how they interact and behave with others. Hence, they should have good moral, be healthy, independent, democratic and responsible.

As CBL is an outcome-based approach, at the end of the learning, Indonesian students are expected to fulfil the graduate competence standard. Ministry of Education and Culture (2014) had determined the graduate competence standard for attitude as follows: (1) Having behavior that reflects a

good attitude, (2) Pious, having good deeds, self-confident, and responsible for the social and natural environment, and (3) Positioning oneself as a reflection of the nation in the international world.

In addition, as highlighted by Mulyasa (2014) that the focus of 2013 Curriculum is on developing students’ competences and characters. Hence, The Ministry of Education and Culture has formulated eighteen character values that should be integrated into lessons. These eighteen character values are derived from both spiritual and social attitudes. Through these values, the students are expected to have good characters along with good competences (attitude, skills, and knowledge). The values and their description are presented in the following table.

Table 2.3: Values of Cultural Education and National Character of 2013 Curriculum

No. Value Description

1 Religious

An obedient attitude and behavior in applying religious teachings, tolerant towards the practices of other religions and beliefs, and in harmony with people having different religions.

2 Honest

Attitudes based on one’s effort to make oneself a person who is trustworthy in speech, action, and work.

3 Tolerant

Attitudes and actions that respect religions, ethnicity, opinions, attitudes, and actions those are different from one’s own.

4 Disciplined Orderly and conforms actions to all the rules and regulations.

5 Hardworking A tenacious behavior in overcoming difficulties and in completing learning tasks.

6 Creative Thinking before doing something to discover new ways or results from what one has at one’s disposal. 7 Independent Attitudes and behaviors that do not depend on other

Table 2.3: Values of Cultural Education and National Character of 2013 Curriculum (cont.)

No. Value Description

8 Democratic

A way of thinking, behaving, and acting which views one’s rights and obligations as equal to those of others.

9 Curious Attitudes and action that generally seeks to discover more about what one learns, observes, and listens. 10 Nationalistic

A way of thinking, acting, and viewing that places national interests higher than personal or communal interests.

11 Patriotic

A way of thinking and doing that reflects faithfulness, care, and respect for the national language, along with the land, social, economic, and political aspects of the community.

12 Appreciative of achievement

Attitudes and actions of encouraging oneself to produce something useful of the society while also acknowledging what others do.

13 Friendly, communicative

Actions that demonstrate an eagerness to converse, interact, and cooperate with other people.

14 Peace loving Attitudes, speech, and actions that cause other people _{to feel happy and secure due to one’s presence.} 15 Fond of reading

The habit to provide time for reading various materials to learn insights and other virtues for oneself.

16 Environmentally aware

Attitudes and actions that generally seek to prevent damage in the natural environment and to make efforts to repair environmental damage that has occurred.

17 Socially concerned

Attitudes and actions that tend to assist other people who need help.

18 Responsible

Attitudes and behaviors that assume the obligation to finish assignments and tasks and to take care of oneself, the society, the environment (nature, social and culture), the country, and God.

(Ministry of Education and Culture in Pengembangan Pendidikan Budaya Dan Karakter Bangsa, 2010: 9-10)

Different from the narrow meaning of attitude which divides attitude solely into positive and negative, the terms attitude in CBL based on 2013 Curriculum is broader. It covers both spiritual and social attitudes which can be

differentiated into the eighteen character values as presented in Table 2.3. This discussion explains why the terms attitude within this study is divided into narrow and broad meaning.

c. Attitude toward English Language Learning

Attitude towards English language learning has become an interesting issue in many countries. As discussed by Bartram (2010) there is still a perception that English native speakers have less good attitude and low motivation to learn English. Meanwhile, in countries in which English is seen as a second language (L2), different attitude is shown. English learners in Netherlands and Germany, for instance, tend to show more positive attitude and higher motivation to learn English. As leaners hold different perceptions when they are learning English, it results in this contrast situation.

Indeed, teachers’ attitude in English language learning should not be neglected. Along with learners’, teachers’ attitude should also be considered as they play a significant role. Therefore, the explanation of attitude toward English language learning entails both learners’ and teachers’ attitude as well.

Leaners’ Attitude

In second or foreign language leaning, attitude towards learning situation is believed as a crucial factor that contributes and even plays an important role (Susandi and Khaerudin, 2015). Attitude towards the learning situation according to Susandi and Khaerudin (2015) refers to learners’ reaction or perception to anything associated with the context in which the language is taught”. If the learners hold positive attitude, they tend to enjoy the learning process and are able

to perform better and achieve greater. Bidin, Jusoff, and Azis (2009) have revealed that there is a relation between attitude and language learning achievement. Their study has discovered that learners with higher achievement are those who have positive attitude. Similarly, Ahmed (2015) points out that:

Learners’ attitudes play a significant role in maximizing learning and teaching output. Learners’ attitude can be defined as a collection of feelings regarding language use and its status in the society. The feelings are good, bad and neutral. They can nurture or hinder the learning process effectively (p. 1).

Each learner has his or her own perspective towards English language learning which is considered as a part of individual differences. In response to such situation, realizing their attitude will help the teachers to adjust their way of teaching so that the objective of learning can still be achieved. Therefore, having good attitude during the language learning process is necessary.

Teachers’ Attitude

Baker’s research (1992, in Bartram, 2010) reveals that environmental variables affect the construction of learners’ attitude in language learning. The environmental factors can be seen both from the situation in which the learners involve in and the interaction of the people surround them such as teachers, classmates or friends, and parents. Among these people, teachers are viewed to be the most significant factor as they are the first who interact and teach directly to the leaners in the classroom context. They somehow determined whether or not the learners enjoy the English language learning, along with the teaching methods, materials and media. These statements are supported by Clark and Trafford (1995,

as cited in Bartram, 2010: 44) who found out that “teachers themselves shared pupils’ views on the importance of the teacher-pupils’ relationship, with teachers in their research claiming it to be the most significant variable affecting pupils’ attitudes towards languages”.

Wright’s research (1999, in Bartram, 2010) also reveals that learners’ attitude in language learning are influenced by their teachers. Another supporting finding comes from Fisher’s study on leaners’ perception towards teacher in foreign language learning (2001, in Bartram, 2010) which states that teachers in foreign language learning is more important than in other subjects.

In addition, Woodcock (2013) states that teacher’s attitude also gives significant influence on students’ classroom performance. Negative attitude can lead to low expectation of learners which results in the reduction of opportunities for them to learn. On the other hand, positive attitude of the teacher can enhance opportunities for the learners. Woodcock (2013) further claims that the influence of teacher’s attitude is powerful. Therefore, it is a must for the teachers to pay attention to their attitude when they are teaching. These are the evidences that explain why teachers play a significant role in English language learning, in terms of attitude. Therefore, both learners’ and teachers’ attitude towards English language learning are crucial as they related one another.

d. Attitude and Related Learning Factors

Considering that attitude is a part of individual’s learning factor, hence, it is commonly found to have a relation to other learning factors. Susandi and Khaerudin (2015) mention that attitude and motivation are correlated.

Furthermore, Gardner (1985, in Susandi and Khaerudin, 2015) asserts that students’ positive attitude towards their second language teacher is related to their motivation and achievement in class. Similarly, Despagne (2010) emphasizes that positive and negative attitude which has been created through the perception influences the motivation of the language learning process. Therefore, the terms attitude and motivation usually go together because they have close relationship.

Along with motivation, perception is also closely related to attitude (Bahamonde-Birke, Kunert, Link and Ortúzar, 2015). It affects attitude through cognitive side. As Eagly and Chaiken (1998, in Jain, 2014) highlighted that cognitive component of attitude involves individual’s belief, therefore, it can be stated that belief affects attitude in similar way as perception. Furthermore, Riley (1989, in Despagne, 2010: 5) mentions that “attitude depends on the individual’s perception of ethno linguistic reality. It means that a learner’s behavior as a member of a group and with respect to other groups, will vary according to his or her belief about the linguistic situation, and language learning is crucial aspect of that behavior”.

Other learning factors which have a relation to attitude are learning style and learning strategy. Caliskan and Kilinc (2012) state that learning style is inborn character learning factors. Hence, it affects individual’s attitude. Their study also reveals that learning style and attitude has a positive and medium relation. Regarding to learning strategy, attitude is found as one of the factors affecting the learners in selecting what kind of strategy they want to use (Oxford, 1990, in Msuya, 2016). In short, motivation, belief, perception, learning style and learning

strategy are five learning factors which are commonly found to affect attitude and vice versa.

3. English Learning Factors

The notion English learning factors here refers to five concepts namely motivation, perception, belief, learning style and learning strategy which are closely related to attitude (Hosseini and Pourmandnia, 2013). As mentioned in the previous part, attitude is not a single learning factor. It involves motivation, belief, perception, learning style and learning strategy as they are strongly related one another. These learning factors are deemed to influence the emergence of certain attitude within an individual. Therefore, the review of these concepts are also related to attitude.

a. Motivation

In general, motivation refers to the desire to participate or get involved in the learning process” (Lumsden, 1994). Bomia et al. (1997: 1) define motivation as “willingness, need, desire and compulsion to participate in, and be successful in the learning process”. Furthermore, Dӧrnyei and Ushioda (2011: 4) define motivation as “the choice of a particular action, the persistence with it, the effort expended on it which is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity and how hard they are going to pursue it”. From these definitions, it can be inferred that motivation refers to the learners’ desire and willingness to take action within the learning process as an effort or attempt to achieve the goal of learning.

Motivation has a direct effect on language learning (Gomleksiz, 2010). Lennartsson (2008, in Gomleksiz, 2010) mentions that motivation is a significant factor in second language learning. Furthermore, Reece and Walker (1997) claim that a less able learner who has high motivation can achieve greater success than the more intelligent learner who has low motivation. In relation to attitude, De Bot, Lowie and Verspoor (2005: 72) state that “a high motivation and a positive attitude towards a second language help second-language learning”. Moreover, Gardner and Lambert (1972) say that motivation to learn is determined by the attitude towards language learning. They further mention that a positive attitude will increase motivation. On the other hand, Deci and Ryan (2000, in Despagne, 2010) state that motivation affect the formation of attitude.

In relation to this research, motivation is viewed as a learning factor which concerns on a willingness to do something in order to achieve the learning goal. It affects and is affected by attitude. Thus, these discussions explain the relation between attitude and motivation which is found to be closely related one another. b. Perception

The terms perception as defined by Pickens (2005) refers to the results of human’s interpretation towards things and events around them. Otara (2011: 1) defines perception as “the way we all interpret our experiences”. Alfaruqy (2014) states that perception can be simply defined as a process of interpretation of things. Hulela, Kelebekae and Boipono (2016) describe perception as a psychological concept on how people view the world around them.

Perception is closely related to attitude (Pickens, 2005). Aviram and Tami (2004, in Suratno, Murniati and Aydawati, 2014) state that individual’s perception determines his or her attitude. Moreover, Alfaruqy (2014) mentions that perception is affected by attitude and vice versa. Therefore, how people perceive things and situations will affect their attitude towards those things and situations. This brief explanation reveals how attitude and perception are correlated.

From these explanations, it can be inferred that perception in this research refers to the educators’ and learners’ view towards teaching learning process and the components within (such as teaching method, material, assessment, instruction, and so on) which is resulted from their interpretation on those things. It is also a part of attitude, particularly in terms of cognitive side.

c. Belief

The terms belief as defined by Murphy (2000: 16, in Steel, 2009: 3) refers to “a complex and inter-related system of personal and professional knowledge that serves as implicit theories and cognitive maps for experiencing and responding to reality”. Bangou, Fleming and Goff-Kfouri (2011: 2) state that “belief relies on cognitive and affective components and are often tacitly held”. Therefore, it is clear that belief concerns on cognitive components.

In relation to attitude, Borg (2006, in Ozmen and Aydin, 2015) mentions that attitude is constituted from belief. This is because belief is considered as a component which determines attitude through cognitive side (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998, in Jain, 2014). Furthermore, Mokhtar (2015) points out that belief and

attitude are important in understanding and improving educational processes. These explains why belief and attitude are related one another.

In short, belief in this research refers to individual’s thought or view towards an object. Belief is also a part of attitude, particularly in terms of cognitive side. It explains why belief is involved in the investigation of attitude within this research.

d. Learning Style

The theories of learning as stated by Brown (2000: 112) are attempted to describe people’s way of learning in general, that is how they perceive, filter, store and recall information. In the process of learning, each learner experiences a certain problem which forms a particular attitude within the learner (individual differences). As the learners encounter many different problems, it leads to the emergence of various learning styles that differ across learners as well as learning strategies that the learners used to overcome the problems. Oxford (2003) mentions that both learning style and learning strategy are considered as the main factors that determine the way and the outcome of learners’ language learning.

Along with other learning factors, learning style has emerged to be a part of the discussion of attitude. Learning style is composed of strategies such as superficial or deep processing of information, holistic and serial processing of knowledge, processing knowledge in details, retention and systematic recalling (Busato et al., 1998, in Ibrahimoglu, Unaldi, Samancioglu and Baglibel, 2013). In the context of second language learning, Brown (2000) defines the terms style as the tendencies or preferences within a learner. In other words, it is the learners’

characteristics of intelligence as well as personality types or attitudes that differ one learner to another. Ellis (2008: 660) asserts that learning style refers to “the characteristics ways in which individuals orientate to problem solving”. He further emphasizes that the focus of learning style is to describe how language learners prefer to learn.

From early to recent research in second language, a number of learning styles have emerged and found to affect the success of second language learning. Ibrahimoglu, Unaldi, Samancioglu and Baglibel (2013) reveal that learning style shows a linear relationship between academic achievements. In relation to attitude, Caliskan and Kilinc (2012) state that learning style is inborn character. Therefore, it affects individual’s way of behaving and perceiving something. In other words, learning style in this research is considered a factor affecting the formation of individual’s attitude, particularly through behavior side. Their study also reveals that learning style and attitude has a positive and medium relation. Therefore, the terms learning style in this research refers to a certain way that leaners tend to use in learning English. It affects the formation of attitude through behavior side.

e. Learning Strategy

The terms learning strategy as defined by O’Malley and Chamot (1990, in Msuya, 2016) refers to special thoughts and behaviors that learners use to help them in learning new language. Meanwhile, Brown (2000) states learning strategy refers to methods to solve problems in learning language. Similarly, Ellis (2008) describes learning strategy as method that learners employ in learning a second

language (L2). He further mentions that it is an attempt to develop learners’ competence in the target language. He also highlights that “learning strategy is problem-oriented, which means that learners used the strategy to overcome the problems they encounter in language learning.

Several factors are found to influence learners in choosing learning strategy. As pointed out by Oxford (1990, in Msuya, 2016), the factors are cultural background, attitude and belief towards the language, stage of learning, gender, motivation and language learning task. Moreover, Ellis (2008) also mentions that age appears to be one of the factors affecting the way learning strategy is used. Through this discussion, the relationship between learning strategy and attitude can be understood. It can be simply defined that learners’ attitude affects them in selecting which learning strategy they want to use in the process of language learning to overcome the learning difficulties.

Learning strategy in this research refers to methods used by leaners to overcome difficulties in learning English. Different from other four learning factors which affect the formation of attitude and vice versa, learning strategy is affected by attitude and does not affect attitude. However, it is still a significant learning factor to be investigated along with attitude.

4. English Educational Research Reports

The term research report within this research refers to several forms of research reports commonly found such as thesis, journal article and research paper. Examining the content of research reports is necessary as it provides information on the progress or development of education. As mentioned by Yates

(2004) a good research should contribute to the improvement of education. Hence, such exploration is necessary to discover how far education has improved within a specific period of time. To assist researchers in examining the research reports, especially for those who obtained large data, a table consisting research attributes can be employed.

The table should cover the attributes of research. Sozbilir (2016) as cited in Gul and Sozbilir (2016) has developed paper classification form (PCF) which consists of five sections: subject of the paper, research design or methods, data collection tools, sample, and data analysis methods. The researcher within this research has adjusted the paper classification form so that it becomes more adaptive. As the results, twelve main categories are formulated. Those are (1) concept clarification (2) origin, (3) investigated topic, (4) related topic, (5) participant, (6) research goal, (7) research design and method, (8) data gathering instrument, (9) data analysis instrument, (10) sampling technique, (11) validation, and (12) result.

First, the classification of concept clarification of the issue being analyzed is based on the concept clarification of the issue within the research reports. In determining the classification of concept clarification, the researcher made a list of concept clarification stated in the studied research reports and then make a generalization through classifying the similar concept into one classification.

Second, the classification of origin is based on the classification area of English discussed in the previous part. There are three areas namely Inner Circle Countries (ICC), Outer Circle countries (OCC) and Expanding Circle countries

(ECC) in which the majority of countries in Asia, including Indonesia, belong to this area. But, as the researcher wanted to focus more on Indonesia, she did not categorize research reports conducted in Indonesia into ECC but Indonesia. It aimed to highlight the focus of this research. In classifying the origin of the research reports, the researcher will see from the area where those researches were conducted.

Third, in terms of investigated topic, the researcher has used the theories of attitude and related learning factors in determining the classification. They are attitude itself, motivation, perception, belief, learning style, and learning strategy and 18 character values of attitude in Competence-based Learning such as honesty, creativity, and tolerance (it depends on what have been found from the studied research reports). However, to get richer results, the researcher also put other related topic as the fourth category. The classification will be based on what the researcher found in the studied research reports.

Fifth category is participant. The types of participants involved in the research (i.e. high school students, English teachers, lecturers, etc.). The classification of this category will also be based on what the researcher found within the studied research reports.

Sixth category is goal of the research. Considering the various goals that will be found within the studied research reports, the researcher will make generalization to classify them so that it will be easier to interpret. Firstly, she will read each research report and make a list on the goal. Then, she will classify the similar goal under one classification as the generalization.

Seventh category is research design and method which can be broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative and mixed (the combination of both quantitative and qualitative). Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) mention that experimental, correlation and survey belong to quantitative. While content analysis, ethnography, and historical research belong to qualitative. They also mention mixed method and action research. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh (2010) make a clear distinction between the two. The quantitative method is composed of experimental and non-experimental. While the qualitative method consists of case study, content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, historical, narrative, and phenomenological. The classification of research design and method are formulated based on the classification of those experts and what have been found in the studied research reports.

Eighth category is data gathering instrument. It consists of several tools which are commonly used to obtain data for both quantitative and qualitative research. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh (2010) have defined various data gathering instruments such as field note, observation, interview, written response (questionnaire), performance measures on and student’s information which can be in the form of portfolio or work samples, and test. They also point out two instruments used in educational research which aims at measuring the value, namely achievement test and aptitude test. However, if the researcher finds other instruments within the studied research reports, they will be put in the classification as well.

Ninth category is data analysis technique. It will be based on the analysis techniques found from the studied research reports. Different from data analysis technique in Sozbilir’s (2016, in Gul and Sozbilir, 2016) paper classification form which classifies quantitative analysis merely into descriptive and inferential, the researcher in this research will put every technique as a classification. It aims to depict more precise information on the use of statistical techniques.

Tenth category is sampling technique which is determined based on two types of sampling namely probability and nonprobability. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh (2010) differentiate between the two types of sampling. They mention that random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling belong to probability sampling. While nonprobability sampling involves convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling. These are the classification of sampling techniques.

Eleventh category is validation. Validity and reliability are commonly used for quantitative research as it always depends on measurement. According to Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh (2010) both validity and reliability are essential in developing and evaluating instruments. Meanwhile in qualitative research, the researchers can use credibility, transferability, trustworthiness and confirmability.

The last category is result. In determining the classification of research results, the researcher will do the same procedure as in defining the classification of research goals. She will make a list of results from each research report and

then the similar results will be put under one classification. By doing so, it will assist the researcher in interpreting the results of large number of research reports. 5. Classification Area of English

English has been widely used in throughout the world for some purposes. Hence, the number of people learning English becomes greater. Indeed, it results in the variety of English. Regarding to this issue, Kirkpatrick (2007) has summarized some classifications on the area of English done by some scholars. The classifications attempt to explain the differences in the ways English is used in different countries. The classification of English can be distinguished through its roles in language teaching. English in language teaching is viewed in three different roles namely English as a native language (ENL), English as a second language (ESL), and English as a foreign language (EFL). This explanation has led to Kachru’s three circles of English. It is composed of Inner-Circle, Outer-Circle and Expanding-Outer-Circle. His classification of area of English in the world is considered as the most common one.

a. Inner-Circle Countries

English as a native language (ENL) according to Kirkpatrick (2007) can be defined when English is used as the primary language and spoken by most of the population. Therefore, the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland are countries in which English is spoken as the native language. These countries are then terms as Inner-Circle countries. English within these countries is not only spoken for educational

purpose but it takes part in almost all fields in their people’s life. They use it for daily language.

b. Outer-Circle Countries

This second classification as mentioned by Kirkpatrick (2007) is in contrast to the first one. English in Outer-Circle countries is not the main language. Nonetheless, it is still important as it is used for official language. In other words, it is termed as English as a second language (ESL). The members of this classification are likely to be the ex-colonies of the United Kingdom (UK) or the United States (US) in the past. Therefore, they have historical role related to the emergence of English in their countries. Outer-Circle countries consist of Nigeria, Malaysia, India, the Philippines, Singapore, South Africa and Pakistan. c. Expanding-Circle Countries

The last classification is Expanding-Circle. It encompasses countries in which English is viewed as a foreign language (EFL). Indonesia is one of the countries in Expanding-Circle which located in Asia. According to Honna (2005) English has spread rapidly in Asia. It can be seen from the increasing number of people learning English for wider communication. Therefore, English education receives more attention. The role of English in Indonesia is more or less the same with some countries in Asia and ECC which can be seen through its use in society in general and business, politics, education and media in particular (Lauder, 2008). In his study, Lauder (2008: 9) mentions that “currently English is seen as needed for development. It is needed for instrumental reasons, as a tool which provides access to international markets, scientific knowledge and expertise”.

Kirkpatrick (2007) mentions that many countries in Middle East such as China, South Korea, Russia, Egypt and Japan are parts of this ECC. It is hard to clearly mention the members of this Expanding-Circle for the reason that EFL users spread all over the world. In short, those which do not belong to Inner-Circle and Outer-Circle are considered to be parts of Expanding-Circle. Indeed, English within these countries is not used or spoken in daily life. It is merely learned in schools or certain courses. Therefore, the opportunity to practice using English is very limited. It results in students who tend to have low motivation to use English outside the classroom.

In relation to this research, this classification area of English is used as the foundation in determining the area where the research reports were conducted. Considering that the focus of this research is on research conducted in Indonesia, therefore, other countries in ECC, OCC and ICC will contribute only in a small number.

6. Content Analysis

The terms content analysis had firstly emerged by the 1940s (Waples and Berelson, 1941, cited in Krippendorff, 2004). Since then, content analysis was utilized as one of research methods used in many studies (Riffe, Lacy and Fico, 1998).

a. Definition and Function

Krippendorff (2004: 18) defines content analysis as “a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts”. As a research technique, “content analysis allows the researchers to process the data texts which are

significant, meaningful, informative, and even representational to others” (Krippendorfff, 2004: 41). It means that the texts being analyzed can be in the forms of various things (not only written material) as long as they fulfill the mentioned requirements. It can be images, maps, sounds, signs, symbols, and even numerical records. He further highlights that content analysis is usually used when the researchers want to discover the trends, patterns and differences of the phenomena or data being analyzed. It is also commonly used in identifications, evaluations and judgements.

Riffe, Lacy and Fico (2005) point out that the essence of content analysis is to examine both the manifest and the latent content. The term manifest content here refers to the results of counting. Therefore, the analysis of manifest content will deal with the message which can be easily recognized and counted. In short, manifest content is only the surface meaning. On the other hand, the analysis of latent content is deeper as it will deal with the judgements, evaluations, and interpretation of content.

In addition, Rose, Spinks, and Canhoto (2015: 1) mention that:

Content analysis can be applied to all kinds of written text such as speeches, letters or articles whether digital or in print, as well as text in the form of pictures, video, film or other visual media. It can be used to examine both the manifest and the latent content of a text. Manifest content refers to the visible, countable components of the message. Latent content refers to the meaning that may lie behind the manifest content. These definitions are useful as they provide an understanding of what is actually meant by content analysis. Through the definitions, it can be concluded that content analysis is a research method which focuses on revealing the meaning of a text. Therefore, it is clear that the object of content analysis is termed as text.

The text itself can be in the form of written and oral. As content analysis involves a large number of data, therefore in analyzing the data, it is common to have data reduction. The process of reducing the data is called coding in which the researchers classify the data into fewer classifications. Through these classifications a particular pattern of data being analyzed will appear as the result. The result is called as manifest content. Meanwhile, when the researcher analyzes the meaning behind the manifest content, the results of the analysis is called as latent content. In short, it can be stated that manifest content focuses solely on the surface, whereas latent content deals with deeper meaning. However, it must be noted that “both manifest and latent content still require interpretation but the interpretation vary in depth and level abstraction” (Graneheim and Lundman, 2004 in Rose, Spinks and Canhoto, 2015: 1).

b. Types

Content analysis, in terms of types, can be broadly categorized into quantitative and qualitative (Rose, Spinks and Canhoto, 2015: 1). It can be seen through the procedure of how the analysis is carried out. Quantitative content analysis according to Rose, Spinks and Canhoto (2015: 3) shares many common characteristics of quantitative research in general. As with other quantitative approach, quantitative content analysis also involves hypothesis formulation as the response to the research question. Moreover, the most visible characteristic of quantitative approach is that the analysis process applies statistical or numerical calculation. Nevertheless, quantitative content analysis has a distinctive characteristic as well. What makes it different is the existence of a step called

developing coding scheme. It is a process of developing classification to classify the data so that more understandable information can be achieved (Rose, Spinks and Canhoto, 2015). Furthermore, Neuendorf (2002: 14) mentions that “the goal of any quantitative content analysis is to produce counts of key categories, measurements of the amounts of other variables”. It is clear that quantitative content analysis emphasizes its focus on implementing measurement technique in order to provide clear results. Hence, the presentation of analysis results involves numerical explanation. By doing so, more accurate interpretation can be drawn. The result of this quantitative content analysis can be stated as the manifest content.

Qualitative content analysis, on the other hand, retains the strengths of quantitative content analysis (Mayring, 2014). Like quantitative content analysis, developing coding scheme also exists in this qualitative content analysis. However, according to Rose, Spinks and Canhoto (2015) there is no statistical analysis involved in this approach. The goal of qualitative content analysis according to Mayring (2014) is to provide rich and deep meaning of a text. This is considered as the latent content. In terms of presentation, the analysis result is usually displayed verbally.

In addition, the use of both quantitative and qualitative techniques in content analysis has become more common. According to Drisko and Maschi (2016) the basic of content analysis involves both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The qualitative technique can be seen through a step called coding unstructured data. Meanwhile the quantitative technique can be seen through the

use of descriptive statistics to analyze the coded data. As highlighted by Creswell (2011, in Drisko and Maschi, 2016) that:

Mixed method research employs complete quantitative and qualitative research studies within a project to gain different perspectives on the study question. Content analysis may combine qualitative and quantitative techniques into a single study method. It is more of a hybrid or blended research methodology than a true form of mixed methods research combining separate qualitative and quantitative studies (p. 13).

Therefore, it is clear that these two techniques can be employed together within a content analysis research. The use of both techniques in a research can enrich the research findings. This explains the nature of qualitative and quantitative techniques in content analysis.

c. Procedures of Conducting Content Analysis

As a research method, content analysis involves a set of procedures. Some experts have proposed different steps in conducting content analysis research. However, as highlighted by Fraenkel and Wallen (2009: 474) that “all procedures that are called content analysis have certain characteristics in common. These procedures also vary in some respects, depending on the purposes of the analysis and the type of data being analyzed”. The framework of conducting content analysis can be seen through the following figure.

Figure 2.2: A Framework of Content Analysis (Krippendorff, 2004: 30)

The framework illustrates the procedure of conducting content analysis. The first thing to be considered is the text (the data of the research) to be analyzed. Once the researchers have acknowledged the text, they must formulate the research question that is the purpose of analyzing the text. Through the research question, the instruments to collect the data can be determined. The next step is describing the context. “In a content analysis, the context explains what the analyst does with the texts, it could be considered the analyst’s best hypothesis for how the texts came to be, what they mean, what they can tell or do” (Krippendorff, 2004: 33). The next step is analytical construct. It presents how the researchers have recognized the context. This step demands them to explain how the text relate to the possible answer of the research question. Once the analysis is done, the researchers should make inference based on the result of the analysis. “Any content analysis should be validatable in principle” (Krippendorff, 2004: 39). It explains why the researchers in content analysis should conduct validation within their research. It aims at strengthening the research findings.

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Appendix 2: Table of the Content of the Investigated Research Reports (cont.)

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Appendix 2: Table of the Content of the Investigated Research Reports (cont.)

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Appendix 2: Table of the Content of the Investigated Research Reports (cont.)