Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The content of this chapter will attempt to explain some important theories related to the research. There are two main parts in this chapter: theoretical description and theoretical review. The theoretical description presents a number of theories of code-switching which become the foundation of the research. The theoretical framework is the description of the main theories to solve the research problem.

A. Theoretical Description

This section discusses four main parts. They are sociolinguistics, code- switching, Pulsa tabloid, and the feature article of Pulsa tabloid.

a. Sociolinguistics

According to Gumperz 1971: 223, “Sociolinguistics is an attempt to find correlations between social; structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur.” Further, Wardaugh 2002: 12 says that sociolinguistics “is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication.” Changes always happen globally especially in the use of language to communicate. Through sociolinguistics, 10 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 people can study the language phenomena that are happening in the past, present, or may be the future. Human beings have used language to exchange information with others since centuries ago. In addition, in using the language, people may use different styles to communicate. It depends on the situation they have. The styles are changing when someone meet different situation in different community. As presented by Holmes 2001: 3, “languages provide a variety of ways of saying the same thing.” People may modify the language in order to have smooth information transfer. By doing so, others will have clear information about the message. In a community, there are several factors affecting the use of language to communicate. As suggested by Holmes 2001: 8, “participants, setting, topic, and function” may affect us on how we use language to have a smooth communication. It has a similar case in language teaching and learning. In language teaching and learning, teachers modify language in order to have a clear explanation to their students. In order to have smooth information transfer, the teachers use their native language in explaining the topic they have that day. This phenomenon is part of the sociolinguistics cases involving the use of two languages. Sociolinguistics plays a crucial role in the research because it studies the correlation between language and society. It is supported by Hoffman 1991: 109 by writing the statement that “sociolinguistics have looked into speech communities, both monolingual and bilingual, trying to establish reasons for, and PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 patterns of, changes of style and language switching.” It means that sociolinguistics is the rightful place to people whom eager to know more about language we are using and phenomena occur during the use of the language. Because this study is related to the use of language in a society, the researcher then considers that sociolinguistics is the rightful guide to help the researcher in finding the right answers that the researcher tries to investigate. In brief, language has affected people in doing the social activity in a community. They have different style in communicating. For example, they modify language to have an effective communication. Moreover, sociolinguistics is the study that observes a phenomenon when people juxtapose two or more languages to create a new language expression in communication and this is usually known as code-switching. Hoffman 1991: 109 supports the previous statement by saying that sociolinguistics tries to find the reasons for language switching.

b. Code-Switching

This part attempts to explain theories related to code-switching. It consists of three main parts: definitions of code-switching, types of code-switching, reasons for code-switching.

a. Definitions of Code-Switching

In explaining the term of code-switching, the researcher finds that there are many definitions proposed by linguists. In order to understand the term of code- PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13 switching the researcher elaborates some definitions proposed by some linguists about code-switching. According to Hoffman 1991: 110, “the most general description of code- switching is that it involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistics varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation.” As presented by Wardhaugh 1992: 89, “a language can be refer to a code.” In code- switching, the term code there represents the language used by the speaker that is changing. To switch language can be identified as a code-switching. Code- switching happens when someone uses two or more languages in a conversation. As explained by Crystal 1997, “code, or language, switching occurs when an individual who is bilingual alternates between two languages during his speech with another bilingual person.” Code switching can also be defined as “a conversational strategy used to establish, cross, or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke, or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations” Gal cited by Wardhaugh 1992: 103. In a community, code-switching is used to have effective function in knowing each other better. It can melt the boundaries in order to build good relationship with others through communication. In this study, the definition of code-switching refers to the definition suggested by McCormick 1994. McCormick 1994: 581 says, “The term ‘code- switching’ refers to the juxtaposition of elements from two or more languages or dialects.” It means that there are at least two languages involved in a communication. The languages used as the indication of code-switching in this PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 14 study are Bahasa Indonesia and English. English is involved in this study because English is the most popular language spreads worldwide and is used in many countries including Indonesia Widiana, 2002.

b. Types of Code-Switching

According to McCormick 2001: 447, there are five types of code- switching based on the length of the juxtaposed elements. Those five types of code-switching are: diglossia, situational code-switching, conversational code- switching, single word code-switching, and integrated loanwords code-switching. The first type of code-switching according to McCormick 2001 is diglossia. According to Ferguson 1972: 232, “diglossia refers to a specific relationship at the societal between two or more varieties in the same language in use in a speech community in different function.” In diglossic situation, there are two distinct varieties namely High H and Low L. The High H variety is used when entering formal areas such as school and government Romaine, 1995: 34, whereas the Low L variety is used outside the formal areas. As presented by Romaine 1995: 34, “L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue and used throughout life.” The second type is situational code-switching. Situational code-switching happens “when people switch from one code to another for reasons which can be identified “Holmes, 2001: 36. Meanwhile, Wardhaugh 1992: 106 explains, “Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 15 the situations in which the conversant find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one.” The third type is conversational code-switching. Conversational code- switching is also known as style shifting or code mixing. Conversational code- switching allows the speakers to juxtapose more than one elements of language it can be a phrase, clause, or sentence in his speech McCormick, 1994: 581. The fourth type is single-word code-switching or borrowing and also known as lexical borrowing. Speaker may borrow a word from other languages when there is no exact word in his native language. As presented by Wardhaugh 1992: 42 says, “type of this switching involves single words – mainly nouns – and it is motivated by lexical need.” The fifth type is integrated loanwords. Morphemes take part in this type of code-switching McCormick, 2001: 447. As it is defined by Hornby 1974: 549 “morpheme is the smallest meaningful part into which a word can be divided.” Affixes from the native language can be added to words taken from foreign language, for example Andi meng-upload fotonya ke situs jejaring sosial. In this sentence, the speaker use the word upload from English and combine it with Indonesian prefix meng-. In deciding the types of code-switching for the study, the researcher then adopts four types of code-switching based on McCormick’s theory 2001. For conversational code-switching, there are three little parts embedded and those are phrase, clause, and sentence. Therefore, the researcher decides that conversational code-switching will be downed into three little parts and those are phrase code- PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 16 switching, clause code-switching, and sentence code-switching. In conclusion, there are six types of code-switching used in the study. They are diglossic code- switching, single-word code-switching, phrase code-switching, clause code- switching, sentence code-switching, and integrated loanwords. Situational code- switching is not included because this type of code-switching only occurs in oral form such as in conversations or speeches. Based on the theory, it is needed to determine who the speakers are and what the topic of the conversation is McCormick, 1994. It means that situational code-switching needs to have the speakers in the conversation and the topics that will be discussed. In order to understand the terms for phrase code-switching, clause code- switching and sentence code-switching, the researcher then will have a brief explanation to those three terms. The first term is phrase code-switching. In this type of code-switching, the juxtaposition occurs in the phrase level. A phrase is “a group of related words that does not contain a subject or a verb” Azhar, 1989: 257. The second term is clause code-switching. The juxtaposition of this type of code-switching happens in the clause level. According to Azhar 1989: 238, a clause is “a group of words containing a subject and a verb.” The third term is sentence code-switching. The juxtapose action of this type of code-switching occurs in the sentence level. According to Bram 1995: 39, “...a sentence – a simple one – must express a complete thought, have a subject and at least a finite verb; a subject and a finite verb are the two minimum requirements for a simple sentence.” PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 17

c. Reasons for Code-Switching

There are plenty of reasons why people do code-switching. In finding the right reasons for code-switching in Pulsa tabloid edition 163, the researcher would adapt the theory from Hoffman 1991: 115-116. There are seven reasons that are going to be used in the study. Those are as follows. First, a switch can occur when talking about a particular topic. Second, a switch can occur when someone is quoting somebody else. Third, a switch can occur when someone is being emphatic about something. Fourth, a switch can occur when it is used as an interjection. Fifth, a switch can occur when it uses repetition for clarification. Sixth, a switch can occur when it is used to express group identity and solidarity. Seventh, a switch can occur when it is used to clarify the speech content for the interlocutor.

B. Theoretical Framework