18 Other reasons for code-switching are presented by Hoffman 1991. She
writes in her book An Introduction to Bilingualism 1991: 115 that “the reasons for code-switching are manifold. Many of them are contextual, situational and
personal kind.” From examples that she provides, many reasons are contextual, situational and personal class. She describes that switching normally happens
when the speaker is quoting someone else. As Holmes referred to “referentially oriented code switch” 2001: 37 which is used to emphasize precise message
content. The second reason is that when the speaker is being emphatic about something. The last reason, in addition, is that when the speaker repeats their
utterance for clarification. Some additional reasons for code-switching are explained by Oksaar
1974, Poplack 1980 and Calsamiglia and Tuson 1984 as cited by Hoffman 1991: 116 said that people might switch their code to express their group
identity and to show solidarity with a certain group.
d. Code-switching in Language Learning
Social factors, as stated by Ellis in his book Second Language Acquisition 1997, have an indirect effect towards the learners communication. “... when the
social conditions are such that learners are motivated to converge on native- speaker norms i.e. speak like native speakers high levels of proficiency ensue,
but when the conditions encourage learners to maintain their own social in-group less learning takes place” Ellis, 1997: 45.
One of the external factors to explain why learners acquire an L2 in certain ways is input or “the samples of languages to which a learner is exposed” Ellis,
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19 1997: 5 that they receive. However, interactions theories of L2 acquisitions
acknowledge the importance of input and internal language processing. “If learner discourse can be shown have special properties, it is possible that these contribute
to acquisition in some way” Ellis, 1997: 45. Just like caretakers modify the way they speak to children learning their first language, so do native speakers modify
their speech when they are communicating with learners. This phenomenon is evident in both input and interaction.
There was a study that has investigated the phenomenon. It is called foreigner talk: “the language that native speakers use when addressing non-native
speakers” Ellis, 1997: 45. There are two types of foreigner talk that can be identified. First, it is called ungrammatical foreign talk. It shows a lack of respect
from the native speaker and can be offended by the learners. Ungrammatical foreign talk is characterized by the deletion of certain grammatical features such
as copula be, modal verbs and articles. In addition, it can be indicated by the using of base form of verbs instead of the past tense form and the using of special
constructions such as ‘no + verb’ Ellis, 1997: 45. Ungrammatical foreign talk’s features of forms are normally the same as those in the learners’ L1.
The second type is grammatical foreign talk. In this type, it can be acknowledge a variety of modifications of native speakers’ talk to other native
speakers. First, it is conveyed at slower rate. Second, the input is simplified by using shorter sentences, avoiding the use of subordinate clauses, and omitting
complex grammatical forms. Third, it uses the basic forms by using a full forms
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20 rather than the contracted one. The last type of modifications is that it sometimes
involves the lengthening of phrases to make the meaning clearer. Furthermore, according to Krashen’s 1993 input hypothesis as cited in
Ellis 1997: second language acquisition happens when a leaner comprehends input which contains grammatical forms. “Success is achieved by using the
situational context to make messages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk” Ellis, 1997: 85. Therefore, when L2
learners receive acceptable input of the target language, they would be able to produce the correct utterances.
B. Theoretical Framework
