12 Another perception about code-switching definiton is also written by
Hoffmann 1991: 110. In her book, she says that code-switching “involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistic varieties within the same utterance or
during the same conversation.” Nikolas Coupland and Adam Jaworski 1997: 361 also write about the
definition of code-switching. They state that code-switching can occur between sentences inter-sentential or within a single sentence intra-sentential.
Based on the above definitions, the researcher defines “code-switching as a common behaviour of people using more than one language in the same
conversation whether in bilingual or multilingual situations to facilitate the communication.”
b. The Types of Code-switching
Every linguist has their own point of view in defining code-switching as well as in classifying the types of code-switching. Since the various points of view
might be influenced by certain factors, the differences in classifying the types of code-switching are considered a common and acceptable phenomenon.
According to Asher Simpson 1994: 581, based on the code-switching terms, there are six types of code-switching. They are diglossia, situational code-
switching, metaphoric code-switching, conversational code-switching, single- word code-switching and integrated loanwords.
1 Diglossia Diglossia is a characteristic of speech communities rather than individuals
Holmes, 2001: 30. In a diglossic situation, two languages are used for different
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13 functions in a speech community. In addition, one language is used for H or high
function and the L is low function. As cited in Wardhaugh’s book 1992: 85 the H varieties may be used for delivering sermons and formal lectures, especially in
a parliament or legislative body, for giving political speeches, for broadcasting the news on radio and televisin, and for writing poetry, fine literature, and editorials
in newspapers. 2 Situational Code-switching
Situational code-switching is “the codes may be perceived as different but be equally valued, and similarity the situations may be differentiated on grounds
other than prestige” Asher Simpson, 1994: 582. 3 Metaphoric Code-switching
Metaphoric code-switching occurs in “whole conversation, each within one role relationship” Asher Simpson, 1994: 581. Metaphoric code-switching
happens where there are no clear illustrative reasons explaining the specific switches. There is no new person, no change in the context or the topic Holmes,
2001: 41. 4 Conversational Code-switching
Conversational code-switching differs from situational code-switching “in that its occurrence is not dependant on a change of interlocutors’ topic or
situation” Asher Simpson, 1994: 583. Gardner and Chloros also state conversational CS, which many authors would now regard as CS proper, does not
necessarily coincide with any such changes but is motivated by factors within the conversation itself 1997: 361.
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14 5 Single-words Code-switching
Single-word code-switching is also known as lexical borrowing. It generally involves single words – mainly nouns – and it is motivated by lexical
need Holmes, 2001: 42. People borrow words from another language to express a particular thing or term when there is no word available in the language that they
use. For example, Indonesian often says ‘download’ instead of ‘mengunduh.’ 6 Integrated Loanwords
The last type of code-switching is integrated loanwords, which occurs between morphemes Asher Simpson, 1994: 581. It is a mixture of two
morphemes of different codes to express a term, for example ‘mem-feedback’ instead of ‘meninjau kembali’ since the word ‘feedback’ is more popular and used
frequently. As written in Sociolinguistics 2002: 33, Peter Stockwell provides three
different types of code switching. Peter discusses the motivations behind each usage in the light of the domains underlying the utterances:
1 Tag-switching Example English – German: ‘I’m pleased to see you’re getting a
Bewegungsmelder, ja’ which means security light, yes. The tag-switch is simply used when the speaker lacked the necessary vocabulary in English for the
previous word. 2 Intersentential switch
Example English – German: ‘We’re going to Nicki’s house at nine and maybe to the Bomb a nightclub afterwards. Kristina bleibt allerding zu Hause
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15 sie muss noch arbetein’ ‘Unfortunately Kristina is staying at home because she
still has to do some work’. 3 Intrasentential switch
Example English – German: I think the essay will be alright, aber Du weisst ja wie das ist’ ‘but you know what it’s like’.
Gumperz 1982, as cited by Gardner and Cholors 1997, identifies two categories of code-switching which are: situational and conversational code-
switching. Gumperz 1997: 361 states “situational code-switching refers to language switches which coincide with a change of interlocutor, setting or topic”
while conversational code-switching does not necessarily correspond with those changes but it is caused “by factors within the conversation itself.” When a
change carried a particular suggestive purpose, it is called metaphorical code- switching as the subdivision of conversational code-switching.
Additionally, Wardhaugh 1992 shares similar classification about the types of code-switching to Gardner’s 1997. He describes two types of code-
switching; situational and metaphorical code-switching. He defines situational code-switching as changes that occur according to the situation. In this kind of
code-switching, no topic change is involved and the speakers are aware to the changes. On the other hand, when a change of topic requires a change of
language, it is called metaphorical code-switching. There is a different from those two points of view. Hoffmann 1991
shows that there are many types of code-switching by providing some examples.
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16 The first type is intra-sentential switches that contain changes within a sentence.
There are three types of changes which can happen within a sentence, those are: 1 Single word
The changes in a sentence only happen for a single word which cannot be replaced with the first language.
2 Phrase The changes of code is happen for a phrase. A phrase is a group of words
lacking both a subject and verb, but a phrase may contain a verbal, such as a participle or infinitive. A phrase also may be used as a noun, adjective, adverb, or
verb Ellsworth, 1981: 14. 3 Clause
The change of code is also could be happen for a clause. A clause “may be either a sentence an independent clause or a sentence-like construction within
another sentence a dependent clause” Nordquist, 2011. While, when the changes occur between sentences, it is called inter-sentential
switches. It is also called as whole sentence. Thus, this type of code-switching occurs in the form of a full sentence or a simple sentence. Ellsworth 1981: 8
states “Sentences can be classified by purpose, they are: declarative a statement, interrogative a question, imperative a command, and exclamatory an
expression of emotion.”The last type is called emblematic switching which includes “items such as tags or exclamations serving as an emblem of the
bilingual character” Hoffmann, 1991: 113.
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17
c. The Reasons for Code-switching
