27 presenting details in the story. After that, tone is related to attitude and control.
Last, symbolism and allegory are related to the extension of meaning. Using Stories in language learning and teaching has been applied for many
years. It happens because using stories has many advantages. Some of them have been mentioned in the research background. In addition, stories can encourage
students‟ personal and social development, confidence, and positive attitudes towards the foreign language and culture. Those are possible because stories are a
useful tool in linking fantasy or imagination with real world. Stories also consist of cross-cultural information.
5. Task-Based Language Teaching
Task-Based Language Teaching TBLT is a supportive methodological framework that aims to provide a rich and comprehensible exposure to language
in real- world uses or purposes. Based on Hong Kong Ministry of Education‟s
argument, TBLT is an approach that: aims at providing opportunities for learners to experiment with and
explore both spoken and written language through learning activities that are designed to engage learners in authentic practical and functional use of
language for meaningful purposes… the role of task-based language learning is to stimulate a natural desire in learners to improve their
language competence by challenging them to complete meaningful tasks as cited in Nunan, 2004, p. 13-14.
It is valid to teach any target language, including foreign language because according to Nunan 2004, TBLT strengthens important principles and practices,
such as the need-based approach, communicative language teaching, the introduction of authentic text, process-focused learning, experiential learning, and
the real-world language uses and purposes para. 1. Those principles and practices become very important because the point of departure of English
28 learning and teaching process is to enable students communicate using English in
order to perform the real-world activities.
a. A Conceptual Basis of TBLT
Nunan 2004 explains that “an important conceptual basis for TBLT is experiential learning” p. 12. It means through personal experience students form
their knowledge, improve their skills, and develop their personal growth. They also become self-directed, and responsible for their own learning. According to
Kohonen, experiential learning consists of six rules of action as cited in Nunan, 2004, para.12.
1. Encourage the transformation of knowledge within students rather than the
transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the students. 2.
Encourage students to participate actively in small collaborative groups. 3.
Include a holistic attitude towards subject matter rather than a statistic, atomistic, and hierarchal attitude.
4. Emphasize process rather than product, learning how to learn and self-
inquiry. 5.
Encourage self-directed rather than teacher-directed learning. 6.
Promote intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations. In order to understand the framework of TBLT in learning and teaching, it
is important to understand the definitions of task.
b. Definitions of Task
The definitions of tasks are varied according to the extent of the concepts that some experts propose. Prabhu defines a task as “an activity which required
learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of
29 thought, and which allowed teacher
to control and regulate that process” as cited in Sanchez, 2004, p. 47. Then, Long defines a task as “a piece of work
undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward” as cited in Sanchez, 2004, p. 47. Those definitions imply that tasks can be categorized into
two. First, a task can be related to a performance in daily life. Some experts call it a real-world task or a target task. Second, a task can also be related to a
performance in the classroom. Some experts call it a pedagogical task. Other expert, such as Nunan,
defines a task as “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or
interacting in the target language, while their attention is principally focused on meaning than form” as cited in Sanchez, 2004, p. 49. Skehan also notes that a
task is “an activity in which meaning is primary, there is a problem to solve, the performance is outcome evaluated, and there is a real world relationship” as cited
in Sanchez, 2004, p. 49. Similarly, Estaire and Zanon distinguish tasks into “communication tasks” that focus on meaning and “enabling tasks” that focus on
linguistic aspects, such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions, and discourse as cited in Littlewood, 2004, para. 320. On the other side, J. Willis
1996 defines a task as “an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose goal in order to achieve an outcome” as
cited in Sanchez, 2004, p. 49. Similarly, Ellis mentioned that tasks are always communicative activities, and the non-communicative activities are called
exercises as cited in Littlewood, 2004, para. 321. Those definitions imply that performance in the classroom pedagogical
tasks can be categorized into two. They are form-focused activities and meaning-
