33
2. Ordering and Sorting
The goal of ordering and sorting is to set information or data according to specific criteria. The procedures involve sequencing, ranking, categorizing, or
classifying the things that students find through brain storming and fact-finding. In this process, students put the information in certain order and categorize it
based on certain criteria.
3. Comparing
The goals of comparing are to match, assemble, or identify similarities and differences. The procedures involve matching, finding similarities, and finding
differences. In matching, students match information from two different sources. In finding similarities and differences, students compare and contrast two or more
sets of information.
4. Problem Solving
The goal of problem solving is to find solution to the problem. Here, presenting a real-life problem is very important. It can involve students in
expressing hypothesis, describing experiences, comparing alternatives, evaluating, and agreeing a solution. As a result, they can develop their intellectual and
reasoning power. Considering the complexity of the problem is also very important because it will influence the process and the time. The procedures
involve analyzing real or hypothetical situations, reasoning, and decision making.
5. Sharing Personal Experiences
The goals of sharing personal experiences are to encourage students to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with other students.
Sharing personal experiences can also e ncourage students to listen to their friends‟
34 experiences. The procedures involve narrating, describing, exploring and
explaining attitudes, opinions, and reactions.
6. Creative Tasks
The goal of creative tasks is to encourage students to complete a project in order to reproduce language based on the models that have been provided or based
on their won creativity. It can be done in pairs or groups. In this process, out-of- class research, organizational skills, and team-work are very important. The
procedures involve combinations of task types that have been mentioned above. The examples of the activities are preparing a snack, writing diaries, investigating
habits and daily activities, producing a class magazine, or performing an interaction that may occur in the real-world situations.
The strength of the classification is that it can be used to develop various tasks on whatever topics that have been selected. It also shows clear goals and
procedures, with starting points and follow-up tasks.
f. Grading, Sequencing, and Integrating Tasks
Richards, Platt, and Weber describe grading as: the arrangement of the content of the language course or textbook so that it
is presented in a helpful way. Gradation would affect the order of which words, word meanings, tenses, structures, topics, functions, skills, etc. are
presented. Gradation maybe based on the complexity of an item, its frequency in written or spoken English, or its importance for the learners
as cited in Nunan, 2004, p. 113.
It means grading is a process of ordering subject contents based on their complexity, importance, and frequency. Complexity is dealing with which subject
contents are easy or difficult. Importance is dealing with which subject contents are the most important or less important. Frequency is dealing with which subject
contents are rarely or often discussed.
35 There are two factors that can influence grading process. They are student
factors and procedural factors. Brindley mentions that student factors involve confidence, motivation, prior learning experience, learning pace, observed ability
in language skills, cultural knowledge or awareness, and linguistic knowledge. Then, procedural factors involve relevance, complexity, amount of context
provided, processibility of language, amount of help, degree of grammatical complexity, time allotment, and follow-up activities as cited in Nunan, 2004,
para. 120-124. Next, sequencing is the step-by-step procedure in presenting subject
contents. There are many ways of sequencing subject contents. Nunan 2004 generates two points of view in sequencing subject contents, within an
instructional cycle and a task. First, sequencing subject contents within an instructional cycle based on cognitive and performance demands consists of
processing comprehension activities, productive activities, and interactive activities. Second, sequencing subject contents within a task consists of a pre-task
phase, a task-proper phase, and a follow-up phase para. 126-128.
1. Pre-Task Phase
Pre-task phase is a process of schema building. The purpose is to introduce and orient students to the topic and the tasks. Besides, the purpose is to generates
students‟ interest and rehearse essential language. The examples of the activities are providing a model pictures, text, audio, or audio-visual model, generating
interest, engaging students in non-task activities brainstorming, eliciting and providing vocabulary, comparing ideas, or sharing experience, and providing
students an opportunity to plan how to perform the tasks.
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