31 Second, a task is a set of classroom work that consists of from the simple
and short activities to more complex and longer activities. Therefore, Nunan 2004 categorizes pedagogical tasks into “rehearsal tasks” and “activation tasks”
para. 20. Rehearsal tasks give students opportunities to prepare and practice what they have learned from the teacher. Then, activation tasks give students
opportunities to reproduce or manipulate what they have learned from the teacher. Third, a task is a set of classroom work that focuses on form and meaning.
Therefore, a pedagogical task involves two dimensions. The first dimension is activities that focus on meaning. They are called meaning-focused activities. The
second dimension is activities that focus on forms structures of language, how they are formed, and what they mean. They are called form-focused activities.
Nunan 2004 calls form- focused activities as “enabling skills” para. 22.
Then, Nunan 2004 adds that enabling skills involve “language exercise”
and “communicative activities” para. 23-24. Language exercise focuses on =lexical, phonological, or grammatical system. Communicative exercises provide
manipulative practices of a restricted set of language items that have an element of meaningful communication. The framework is presented in Figure 2.2.
Real-worldTarget tasks
Pedagogical tasks Enabling skills
Rehearsal tasks
Activation tasks
Language exercises
Communicative activities
Figure 2.2 Nunans TBLT Framework 2004, p. 25
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d. Elements of Task
There are three important elements of tasks, goals, input, and procedures. Goals are the intentions behind the tasks. Based on Nunan‟s point of view 2004,
goals may relate general outcomes or directly describe the teacher‟s or students‟ behaviors para. 42. There are communicative, sociocultural, learning-how-to-
learn, and language and cultural awareness goals. According to Nunan 2004, input refers to “the spoken, written, and visual data that learners work with in the
course of completing a tas k” p. 47. Using authentic data or real-world resources
as an input is necessary because the language is natural, they contain complete and meaningful message, provide linguistic clues a layout, pictures, colors,
symbols, and a physical setting, and have relevance to the reality. Then, Nunan 2004 explains that “procedure specifies what learners will actually do with the
input” p. 47. In other word, procedure is a step-by-step ways or sequences that form a systematic cycle.
e. Types of Task
Willis 1996 suggests six types of task, listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal experiences, and creative tasks
para. 26-27
1. Listing
The goal of listing is to complete a list or draft a mind map related to the topic being discussed. The procedures involve brainstorming and fact-finding. In
brainstorming, students draw a mind map based on their own knowledge and experiences by listing everything that they know. In fact-finding, students find out
things related to the topic by asking each other and referring to books.
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2. Ordering and Sorting
The goal of ordering and sorting is to set information or data according to specific criteria. The procedures involve sequencing, ranking, categorizing, or
classifying the things that students find through brain storming and fact-finding. In this process, students put the information in certain order and categorize it
based on certain criteria.
3. Comparing
The goals of comparing are to match, assemble, or identify similarities and differences. The procedures involve matching, finding similarities, and finding
differences. In matching, students match information from two different sources. In finding similarities and differences, students compare and contrast two or more
sets of information.
4. Problem Solving
The goal of problem solving is to find solution to the problem. Here, presenting a real-life problem is very important. It can involve students in
expressing hypothesis, describing experiences, comparing alternatives, evaluating, and agreeing a solution. As a result, they can develop their intellectual and
reasoning power. Considering the complexity of the problem is also very important because it will influence the process and the time. The procedures
involve analyzing real or hypothetical situations, reasoning, and decision making.
5. Sharing Personal Experiences
The goals of sharing personal experiences are to encourage students to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with other students.
Sharing personal experiences can also e ncourage students to listen to their friends‟
