17 to carefully plan the procedure in order to anticipate the deficiencies and failures
in the equipment, provide the equipment, frequently encounter the local school administrators in order to carry the minicourse through the entire cycle, and soon.
It means RD cycle is often a time-consuming and expensive process. The process is often beyond the ability of most schools or undergraduate students.
Therefore, it is not necessary to take all the ten steps of RD cycle. Borg and Gall suggest undergraduate students to carry out a small scale RD cycle by
modifying and limiting some of the steps.
2. Instructional Design Model
Smith and Ragan 1999 define instructional design ID as “the
systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources,
and evaluation” p. 2. There are many models of ID that have been developed for various instructional purposes. One of them is an ID model suggested by Kemp.
The ID model has some strengths. First, it involves clear and specific stages.
Second, it provides flexibility in determining the sequence of the stages and conducting the revision.
In determining the sequence, Kemp 1977 mentions that a designer can start the process from any stage. It is possible because the ID model consists of
eight “interdependence” stages para. 9. Interdependent means each stage can be
considered separately and in sequence. For example, a designer wants to design supplementary materials. Normally, the process is started by specifying goals,
topics, and general purposes. When the designer has already had the list of goals, topics, and general purposes, the process can be started by identifying students‟
18 characteristics. Then, it is continued by specifying which goals, topics, and
general purposes that mee t the students‟ characteristics and soon. However, it
cannot be directly started by specifying learning objectives or selecting and organizing subject contents because, the designer has to know the specific goals,
topics, and general purposes. It means, although the designer can start the process from any stage, the
designer needs to remember that some stages cannot be conducted before certain stages are completed. It happens because all stages are related each other. They
also may affect each other. Therefore, the designer should carefully consider which stage can be place at the initial process, which can follow it, and which is
flexible. After that, the designer determines the sequence of the stages. In revision, the designer can start the process from any stage where lacks
and weaknesses are found. It can be done after the designer conducts all the stages or when conducts each stage. Kemp 1977 illustrates that it can be done back and
forth for each stage before continue to other stages para. 9. Besides, the designer does not need to repeat all stages based on the sequence that has been determined.
Therefore, the ID model is useful for a large-scale program involving large group of people or sources. It can minimize the budget, time allocation, and manpower.
Kemp ‟s ID model 1977 consists of eight stages, they are:
a. Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Kemp 1977 mentions three sources of identifying goals, society, students, and subject area para. 14. The goals should state and recognize changes
in students‟ needs and interests, as well as changes in the needs of society and its
institution. After that, it is continued by selecting topics that will be the scope or
19 basis of the instructional materials. The topics are arranged in a logical
organization, such as based on the level of difficulty. Then, general purposes should be listing as well as the goals and the topics.
b. Learner Characteristics
According to Kemp 1977, the next stage is obtaining information about the
students‟ capabilities, needs, and interests para. 18. It involves four factors, academic, social, learning conditions, and learning styles. It is very important to
help the designer in determining the topics and level of difficulty, sequencing the objectives and the depth of treatment, and selecting the activities. Questionnaire,
interview, pre-assessment test, attitudinal surveys, students‟ cumulative records,
and consultations can be used to get the information.
c. Learning Objectives
Learning objectives refer to specific and measureable language behaviors. Kemp 1977 states four benefits of specifying objectives. First, objectives
function as the design framework. Second, objectives inform students what they will acquire. Third, objectives help the designer in selecting and organizing the
subject content, and selecting type and extent of activities. Fourth, objectives provide a basis for the evaluation and the best means for communicating what is
to be taught and learned para. 34. Objectives are stated in terms of activities that students should accomplish in order to achieve the basic competence and will
promote learning. They cover three major categories, cognitive domain, affective domain, and psychomotor domain. In determining the level of difficulty of each
domain, the designer can use Benjamin S. Bloom‟s, David R. Krathwohl‟s, or
Robert M. Gagne ‟s taxonomies as the guideline.
20
d. Subject Content
Kemp 1977 states that subject contents are closely related to objectives and
students‟ capabilities, needs, and interests. This stage involves selecting and organizing specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step
procedures, conditions, and requirements, and attitudinal factors of each topic para. 43-44. Similar to sequencing objectives, in selecting and organizing
subject content, the designer can use Benjamin S. Bloom‟s, David R. Krathwohl‟s, or Robert M. Gagne‟s taxonomies as the guideline.
e. Pre-Assessment
Pre-assessment is important to specify to what extent students have acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topics and what the they may
have already mastered about the subject to be studied. There are two types of assessment, pre-requisite testing and pre-testing. Kemp 1977 writes that a
prerequisite assessment determines the students‟ background knowledge related to the discussed topic. Then, the pre-testing determines which of objectives that the
students may have already achieve para. 51.
f. Teaching or Learning Activities and Resources
After completing the previous five stages, Kemp 1977 suggests that the designer must determine the most efficient and effective methods para. 55. It can
be done by recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of the method. Then, the designer selects the types of the materials, activities, media, and resources. In
selecting the media, the designer should consider the amount of the students small groups or large groups, the type of the activities individual, in pairs, or in
groups, the type of the materials audio, visual, or audio-visual.
