Translation mapping of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne Duprau's city of ember into Indonesian and their equivalence in back translation.

ABSTRACT

PURWANINGSIH, YANI. Translation Mapping of the English Prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their Equivalence in Back Translation. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2013.

This study discusses the translation mapping of English prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their equivalents when they are translated back into English. The writer has an expectation that the study will broaden readers’ knowledge and understanding of the prepositions above, beyond, and over, both in English and Indonesian, that further might strengthen their translation skills.

There are two problems analyzed in this study. The first problem is how the mapping of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in Indonesian. It is analyzed to see how the translations and the meanings of the English prepositions

above, beyond, and over are classified in Indonesian. The second problem is how the equivalence of the Indonesian translations seen using reverse translation method. In this study, the writer focused on the equivalence of preposition’s meaning and expression in both English and Indonesian.

The study focused on the translation mapping and translation equivalence of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian and vice versa based on the existing theories on prepositions and some theories on translation studies. The data used in this study were divided into two categories, data in English as the first source text and Indonesian data as the target text. The methodologies applied in this study were a combination of field and library research. Field research was employed by giving a survey to certain respondents to translate using the reverse translation method. The writer also conducted a library research in order to get as much information as she needed for the study.

Based on the study analysis, the following have been identified as the answers to each problem. First, the mapping of English prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian has resulted in the same relationships and expressions. Some theories on prepositions used in the study have been determined to be applicable in both English and Indonesian. This indicates that these two languages share similar characteristics and usages of prepositions. The second result is respondents translated some Indonesian translations of those three English prepositions back to English differently from its original text. Even though some of them are translated differently and even untranslated, the relationships, meanings and expressions they carry have remained the same. It has also been proven that there are similar patterns or concepts prepositions have both in English and Indonesian.

ABSTRAK

PURWANINGSIH, YANI. Translation Mapping of the English Prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their Equivalence in Back Translation. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2013.

Studi ini membahas mengenai pemetaan terjemahan preposisi above, beyond, dan over yang ditemukan di buku City of Ember karya Jeanne Duprau ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan sejauh mana ekuivalensi preposisi ini ketika mereka diterjemahkan kembali ke Bahasa Inggris. Penulis berharap studi ini dapat menambah pengetahuan dan pemahaman para pembaca maupun mahasiswa mengenai preposisi above, beyond, dan over, baik di Bahasa Indonesia maupun Bahasa Inggris, sehingga nantinya diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan mereka dalam menerjemah.

Terdapat dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam studi ini. Masalah pertama adalah bagaimana pemetaan preposisi above, beyond, dan over yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui terjemahan dan arti dari preposisi tersebut dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Masalah kedua yaitu seberapa ekuivalen terjemahan dari preposisi ini ketika mereka diterjemahkan kembali ke Bahasa Inggris. Dalam studi ini, penulis memfokuskan ekuivalensi pada arti yang dibawa oleh preposisi tersebut, baik di Bahasa Indonesia maupun di Bahasa Inggris.

Studi ini terfokus pada pemetaan terjemahan preposisi above, beyond, dan

over dan ekuivalensinya dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan juga sebaliknya berdasarkan beberapa teori yang ada mengenai preposisi dan ilmu terjemahan. Data dibagi menjadi dua kategori, data dalam Bahasa Inggris sebagai teks sumber dan data dalam Bahasa Indonesia sebagai teks target. Metode yang digunakan adalah perpaduan studi pustaka dan riset lapangan. Riset lapangan dilakukan dengan cara melakukan survey terhadap beberapa responden untuk menerjemahkan menggunakan metode back translation. Penulis juga melakukan studi pustaka untuk mendapatkan informasi selengkap-lengkapnya yang dibutuhkan dalam studi ini.

Berdasarkan hasil analisis studi ini, berikut adalah jawaban untuk tiap permasalahan yang dibahas. Pertama, pemetaan preposisi above, beyond, dan over

dalam Bahasa Indonesia menghasilkan adanya hubungan dan ekpresi yang sama. Beberapa teori tentang preposisi yang digunakan dalam studi ini dapat diterapkan di kedua bahasa ini. Hal ini mengindikasikan adanya karakteristik yang sama antar keduanya. Hasil yang kedua adalah responden menerjemahkan balik preposisi ini ke preposisi yang berbeda dari teks aslinya, bahkan ada beberapa yang tidak diterjemahkan, namun sebagian besar tetap memiliki hubungan dan arti yang sama dengan teks aslinya. Hal ini membuktikan adanya pola dan konsep yang sama antara Bahasa Indonesia dan Bahasa Inggris.

TRANSLATION MAPPING OF THE ENGLISH

PREPOSITIONS ABOVE, BEYOND, AND OVER IN JEANNE

DUPRAU’S

CITY OF EMBER INTO INDONESIAN AND

THEIR EQUIVALENCE IN BACK TRANSLATION

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

YANI PURWANINGSIH

Student Number: 094214045

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2013

TRANSLATION MAPPING OF THE ENGLISH

PREPOSITIONS ABOVE, BEYOND, AND OVER IN JEANNE

DUPRAU’S

CITY OF EMBER INTO INDONESIAN AND

THEIR EQUIVALENCE IN BACK TRANSLATION

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

YANI PURWANINGSIH

Student Number: 094214045

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2013

“Being happy doesn't mean

that everything is perfect. It

means that you've decided to

look beyond the

imperfections.”

Gerard Way

“Language is the means of

getting an idea from my brain

into yours without surgery.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I believe that this research report could never be accomplished without help from others. It would be my pleasure to address my sincere appreciation to all parties who were willing to give me their time and support during the writing process of my undergraduate thesis.

First of all, my deepest gratitude goes to Allah SWT for the blessings upon me. I got many learning points during the long writing process before finally I came to this piece.

I would like to address my special thanks for my advisor, Harris Hermansyah S., S.S., M.Hum., who has guided me and helped me in finishing this study. I thank him very much for the time he has spent on giving me his thoughts, advice, and suggestion. I am also indebted a gratitude to my co-advisor, Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum., for suggestion and willingness to do correction on my undergraduate thesis. I am likewise grateful to my Main Examiner, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., for his observations and corrections during my thesis

defense. Without their help, it would never come into being. I also thank all the

lecturers in the English Letters Department for the time and energy they spent teaching, and for the love, patience, and motivation given to me during my study.

I owe a great deal to my beloved husband for the incomparable love, support, and encouragement, and to my parents whose love, prayer, and patience were always gave me strength. A million thanks also go to my only little sister,

Ulil, who was doing her undergraduate thesis at the same time with me. I thank her for being my motivation to finish this thesis sooner.

I must give many thanks also for students of English Letters 2009, especially my close friends Richard, Vicka, Putri, and Vincentia “Vince” with whom I share most good and bad times.

Lastly, I extend a million thanks for all parties who have supported me during my study in Sanata Dharma University whose names I cannot mention here, but I inscribe them in my heart.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE ... iii

MOTTO PAGE ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ... xi

ABSTRACT ... xii

ABSTRAK ... xiii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1

A.Background of the Study ... 1

B.Problem Formulation ... 5

C.Objectives of the Study ... 5

D.Definition of Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 8

A.Review of Related Studies ... 8

B.Review of Related Theories ... 13

1. Prototype Theory ... 13

2. Prepositional Meanings ... 14

3. Types of Preposition in Bahasa Indonesia ... 15

4. Theories of Equivalence ... 16

5. Theories of Back Translation ... 17

C.Theoretical Framework ... 18

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ... 20

A.Area of Research ... 20

B.Object of the Study ... 20

C.Method of the Study ... 21

D.Research Procedure ... 21

1. Types of Data ... 21

a. Objective Data ... 22

b. Affective Data ... 22

2. Data Collection ... 23

a. Document Analysis ... 23

b. Survey ... 24

3. Population and Sample ... 24

4. Data Validity ... 25

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ... 29

A.Translation Mapping of Prepositions above, beyond and over in Indonesian ... 30

1. Translation Mapping and the Meanings of Preposition above ... 30

2. Translation Mapping and the Meanings of Preposition beyond ... 33

3. Translation Mapping and the Meanings of Preposition over ... 38

B.The Translation’s Equivalence of Prepositions above, beyond and over Seen through Back Translation Method ... 48

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 59

APPENDICES ... 62

Appendix 1: Data Collection – The Group of Data with Preposition above ... 62

Appendix 2: Data Collection – The Group of Data with Preposition beyond ... 64

Appendix 3: Data Collection – The Group of Data with Preposition over ... 66

Appendix 4: The Translation Mapping of Preposition above ... 74

Appendix 5: The Translation Mapping of Preposition beyond ... 75

Appendix 6: The Translation Mapping of Preposition over ... 76

Appendix 7: The Data for the Survey ... 79

Appendix 8: The Form of the Survey ... 80

Appendix 9: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 1 (R1) ... 82

Appendix 10: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 2 (R2) ... 84

Appendix 11: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 3 (R3) ... 86

Appendix 12: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 4 (R4) ... 88

Appendix 13: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 5 (R5) ... 90

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The Example of the Group of Data with Preposition above ... 23

Table 2. The Example of the Group of Data with Preposition above ... 27

Table 3. The Example of the Meanings of Preposition above ... 27

Table 4. The Example of the Translation Mapping of Preposition above ... 28

Table 5. The Example of the Result of Back Translation ... 28

Table 6. The Group of Data with Preposition above ... 30

Table 7. The Meanings of Preposition above ... 31

Table 8. The Translation Mapping of Preposition above ... 33

Table 9. The Group of Data with Preposition beyond ... 33

Table 10. The Meanings of Preposition beyond ... 36

Table 11. The Translation Mapping of Preposition beyond ... 37

Table 12. The Group of Data with Preposition over ... 38

Table 13. The Meanings of Preposition over ... 40

Table 14. The Translation Mapping of Preposition over ... 47

Table 15. The Result of the Survey from Five Respondents ... 49

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Semantic Network of Preposition over ... 9

Figure 2. The Diagram of Source Triangulation ... 25

Figure 3. The Diagram of Methodological Triangulation ... 26

ABSTRACT

PURWANINGSIH, YANI. Translation Mapping of the English Prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their Equivalence in Back Translation. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2013.

This study discusses the translation mapping of English prepositions

above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their equivalents when they are translated back into English. The writer has an expectation that the study will broaden readers’ knowledge and understanding of the prepositions above, beyond, and over, both in English and Indonesian, that further might strengthen their translation skills.

There are two problems analyzed in this study. The first problem is how the mapping of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in Indonesian. It is analyzed to see how the translations and the meanings of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over are classified in Indonesian. The second problem is how the equivalence of the Indonesian translations seen using reverse translation method. In this study, the writer focused on the equivalence of preposition’s meaning and expression in both English and Indonesian.

The study focused on the translation mapping and translation equivalence of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian and vice versa based on the existing theories on prepositions and some theories on translation studies. The data used in this study were divided into two categories, data in English as the first source text and Indonesian data as the target text. The methodologies applied in this study were a combination of field and library research. Field research was employed by giving a survey to certain respondents to translate using the reverse translation method. The writer also conducted a library research in order to get as much information as she needed for the study.

Based on the study analysis, the following have been identified as the answers to each problem. First, the mapping of English prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian has resulted in the same relationships and expressions. Some theories on prepositions used in the study have been determined to be applicable in both English and Indonesian. This indicates that these two languages share similar characteristics and usages of prepositions. The second result is respondents translated some Indonesian translations of those three English prepositions back to English differently from its original text. Even though some of them are translated differently and even untranslated, the relationships, meanings and expressions they carry have remained the same. It has also been proven that there are similar patterns or concepts prepositions have both in English and Indonesian.

ABSTRAK

PURWANINGSIH, YANI. Translation Mapping of the English Prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian and their Equivalence in Back Translation. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2013.

Studi ini membahas mengenai pemetaan terjemahan preposisi above, beyond, dan over yang ditemukan di buku City of Ember karya Jeanne Duprau ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan sejauh mana ekuivalensi preposisi ini ketika mereka diterjemahkan kembali ke Bahasa Inggris. Penulis berharap studi ini dapat menambah pengetahuan dan pemahaman para pembaca maupun mahasiswa mengenai preposisi above, beyond, dan over, baik di Bahasa Indonesia maupun Bahasa Inggris, sehingga nantinya diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan mereka dalam menerjemah.

Terdapat dua permasalahan yang dibahas dalam studi ini. Masalah pertama adalah bagaimana pemetaan preposisi above, beyond, dan over yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui terjemahan dan arti dari preposisi tersebut dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Masalah kedua yaitu seberapa ekuivalen terjemahan dari preposisi ini ketika mereka diterjemahkan kembali ke Bahasa Inggris. Dalam studi ini, penulis memfokuskan ekuivalensi pada arti yang dibawa oleh preposisi tersebut, baik di Bahasa Indonesia maupun di Bahasa Inggris.

Studi ini terfokus pada pemetaan terjemahan preposisi above, beyond, dan

over dan ekuivalensinya dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan juga sebaliknya berdasarkan beberapa teori yang ada mengenai preposisi dan ilmu terjemahan. Data dibagi menjadi dua kategori, data dalam Bahasa Inggris sebagai teks sumber dan data dalam Bahasa Indonesia sebagai teks target. Metode yang digunakan adalah perpaduan studi pustaka dan riset lapangan. Riset lapangan dilakukan dengan cara melakukan survey terhadap beberapa responden untuk menerjemahkan menggunakan metode back translation. Penulis juga melakukan studi pustaka untuk mendapatkan informasi selengkap-lengkapnya yang dibutuhkan dalam studi ini.

Berdasarkan hasil analisis studi ini, berikut adalah jawaban untuk tiap permasalahan yang dibahas. Pertama, pemetaan preposisi above, beyond, dan over

dalam Bahasa Indonesia menghasilkan adanya hubungan dan ekpresi yang sama. Beberapa teori tentang preposisi yang digunakan dalam studi ini dapat diterapkan di kedua bahasa ini. Hal ini mengindikasikan adanya karakteristik yang sama antar keduanya. Hasil yang kedua adalah responden menerjemahkan balik preposisi ini ke preposisi yang berbeda dari teks aslinya, bahkan ada beberapa yang tidak diterjemahkan, namun sebagian besar tetap memiliki hubungan dan arti yang sama dengan teks aslinya. Hal ini membuktikan adanya pola dan konsep yang sama antara Bahasa Indonesia dan Bahasa Inggris.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

English prepositions such as at, of, after, up, beyond, over, in, from, by, behind, above, to, for, during, about, and on are function words that might not have any obvious meaning associated when they stand alone, but in fact, they still have their own dictionary meanings. According to Frank (1972: 171) in Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide, the preposition has the function of connecting a noun or pronoun to another word, usually a noun, verb, or adjective. They function not only as connectors but also have a general grammatical function to indicate certain relationships between words or phrases in sentences such as temporal, tandem, backdrop, scalar, logical, quantity, and spatial relationships. Basically, the meaning of prepositions always shows spatial relation (cf. Brugman and Lakoff 1988, Cienki 1989, Herskovits 1982, 1986; Janda 1985; Vandeloise 1994). In English, each relationship might have several expressions or meanings. The spatial relationship, for example, includes the expressions of dimension or shape, distance, movement or direction, location, and position.

In Bahasa Indonesia, from the definition in Sarikata Bahasa Indonesia Lengkap (2009), preposition or kata depan means a word that connects a noun with other words. According to Alwi et al. (1998: 288), Indonesian prepositions are used to indicate a relation of meaning between the front constituent and the

back constituent. This shows that prepositions are quite important for indicating the relationships between elements they connect and the expressions or semantic meanings of phrases or sentences even though their existence is often less noticeable than other word categories. In the British National Corpus list of the 30 most commonly used words in English, 8 are prepositions (Leech, Rayson, & Wilson, 2001: 120). Since they have various expressions, however, a common problem, in this case for Indonesian students, lies in determining the correct meanings, the proper usages, and the translation of these English prepositions. An English preposition can often be translated into several different Indonesian prepositions.

Translation is one way for people to know the others’ ideas or meanings

from different countries in the world by changing the “foreign” language into the “native” language. There are some rules and strategies in translating so that the

meanings and messages will be transferred properly. One way to assess whether a translation is good or not is by judging its equivalence, where the meaning carried in the Source Language (SL) should remain the same or similar after it is translated into Target Language (TL). An equivalent effect is defined as a similar effect on the Target Text (TT) receivers as the Source Text (ST) is considered to have on Source Text receivers (Newmark, 1988: 48). One common obstacle in the process of learning foreign languages, including translating, is derived from the differences between both languages. People often apply their mother tongue systems into the foreign languages systems they learn. They also unconsciously adjust the foreign language systems into their native language systems. Brown

(1987: 153-154) states that the principal barrier in second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system on the second language system. Other than their highly idiomatic nature and polysemy, translating prepositions into the second or foreign language is often considered a difficult task for students. This is due to the different ways that the two languages treat prepositions. Gethin and Gunnemark (1996: 18) note in their book, The Art and Science of Learning Languages, "Prepositions are famous for being used in their own special and 'different' way in each language, and cause great difficulties to students all over the world."

Following are some cases with the preposition over taken from Jeanne

DuPrau’s fictional book, City of Ember, and the Indonesian edition.

1. ST: She passed a line of customers waiting to get into the vegetable market, their shopping bags draped over their arms. (DuPrau, 2003: 18)

TT: Dia melewati antrean pelanggan yang ingin masuk ke toko sayuran, dengan keranjang belanja menggantung di lengan mereka. (DuPrau, 2009: 21) 2. ST: “I can leapfrog overthe trash can!” (DuPrau, 2003: 19)

TT: “Aku bisa lompat kodok melewatitempat sampah!” (DuPrau, 2009: 21) 3. ST: Lina lived in Quillium Square, over the yarn shop run by her grandmother.

(DuPrau, 2003: 21)

TT: Lina tinggal di Alun-Alun Quillium, di atas toko benang yang dikelola oleh neneknya. (DuPrau, 2009: 24)

The three examples above use the English preposition over that is translated into Indonesian differently in each case. The first over is translated into the simple Indonesian preposition di, the second over is translated into the

Indonesian verb melewati, and the last over is translated into the complex Indonesian preposition di atas.

Due to the writer’s curiosity, this study is conducted to classify the translations of prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember into Indonesian based on the existing theories about both English and Indonesian prepositions. Since prepositions are used in all kinds of texts, the work

City of Ember was selected as the source of the data in part due to its vivid and clear, precise composition in English. The book is targeted mainly at children and teenagers, so the complexity of writing (the reading level) is lower than in adult fiction, which should simplify comparison of SL with TL and assessment of the TL.

The mapping process in this study is limited to the scope of semantic category, meaning it uses only those prepositions’ lexical or dictionary meanings and focuses on finding their meanings when they are in the form of prepositional phrase only. Further, this study will also look at how English native speakers who are foreign learners of Indonesian back-translate those Indonesian prepositions as a result of mapping into their own language and will also evaluate whether their translations are equivalent to the original source text. In conceptualizing their equivalence, the writer refers to the existing theories about English prepositions.

The theoretical benefits of this study are that it provides the meanings’ classification of prepositions above, beyond, and over in Indonesian. By knowing the problems and finding solutions, it will also develop the field of translation studies itself. In practice, this study will broaden people’s, especially students’,

knowledge and understanding of the prepositions above, beyond, and over, both in English and Indonesian, which might further strengthen their translation skills. The writer also expects that the results of this study can be useful for other researchers to make further analysis dealing with fields of translation from other points of view.

B. Problem Formulation

Based on the above background, the problems of this study are formulated as follows:

1. How are the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember mapped in Indonesian translation?

2. How is the equivalence of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in

Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember seen using the back translation method?

C. Objectives of the Study

In accordance with the problems formulated above, this study has the following objectives. The first objective is to see how the English prepositions

above, beyond, and over are translated into Indonesian and how their meanings are classified based on existing theories about prepositions. The second objective of this study is to review the equivalence of the Indonesian translations seen using the back translation method.

D. Definition of Terms

There are some terms that the writer wants to define in order to avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding or differences in understanding certain terms in this study.

Translation Mapping. Ho-Abdullah and Amna Hasan, in The Conceptual Mapping of the English Preposition in into Arabic, stated that the conceptual mappings in the translation of English prepositions into Arabic fall into three categories that allow the identification of the semantic mapping of the English preposition in and its correspondence Arabic prepositions that later can be invoked to characterize the meaning of the English preposition in. (2009: 604-605)

Derived from the definition above, the term translation mapping in this study refers to the classification of the translations of prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian and their relationships as well as the meanings they express in certain contexts that are analyzed based on certain existing theories about both Indonesian and English prepositions.

Prepositional Phrase. Mark Lester in Grammar in the Classroom stated thatPrepositional Phrase is a group of related words beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun, noun phrase or pronounthat functions as the object of the preposition. It usually functions as an adjective, if it modifies a noun, or an adverb when it modifies an adjective or an adverb. (1990: 105-108)

Translation. According to Eugene Nida and Charles Taber in their book

The Theory and Practice of Translation, “translation consists of reproducing in

the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the language message, first

in the terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”

Equivalence. From the definition of translation above, “the term equivalence is clearly the main point. In other words, the main problem of translation is to find target language equivalent. Thus equivalence is variously

regarded as a necessary condition for translation”. (Baker, 1992: 5-6).

Equivalent effect is defined as similar effect on the Target Text receivers as the Source Text is considered to have on Source Text receivers (Newmark, 1988: 48).

Back Translation. According to Harkness and Glusberg, in their study of Questionnaires in Translation, back translation is considered a translation assessment tool/procedure instead of a translation method. It involves the translation of a text, which itself is a translation, back into the original/source language and it is most commonly used and recommended as a way to assess translation work (Werner and Campbell, 1970). They also suggest back translation can be used for translator assessment.

According to Mildred L. Larson in Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence, back translation is a way to check translation quality by having someone else who is truly bilingual in the source and target languages to take the translation and to write out the meaning he/she gets from it back into the source language (1984: 490)

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part is a review of related studies previously by other writers. It explains the topic of the studies and which parts are relevant or even different to the topic of this study. The second part is a review of related theories that are relevant to the present study. It consists of the theories used in analyzing the matters discussed and how they suit this study. The last part is the theoretical framework. It deals with the contribution of the theories in solving the problems of the study.

A.Review of Related Studies

1. Reconsidering Prepositional Polysemy Networks: The Case of over by Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans (2001)

The first related study is Reconsidering Prepositional Polysemy Networks: The Case of over by Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans (2001: 746), provides sophisticated visual representations and creates a “semantic network”

Figure 1. Semantic Network of Preposition over (Tyler and Evans, 2001: 746)

Based on the diagrams of the prototypes of the preposition over

illustrated in figure 1 above, the spatial relationship is established by at least entities, one is the center of attention and likely to be movable, and the other is the background and referenced to the first. Langacker (1987) stated that these two entities are the object that is located, termed the trajector (TR), and the object that serves as a reference point, the landmark (LM). The expressions these two entities carry including covering, examining, repetition, trajectory, on-the other-side of, completion, and over and above

Essentially, this paper provides several criteria for ordering and ranking linguistic evidence and thereby improves the reliability of judgments and

conclusions. To the extent practical, the present study will attempt to integrate some of the findings and methodology exhibited in this paper, particularly including a mix of different formats which aid both in performing analysis and presenting the results intelligibly to readers. It is also relevant to the present study in the way it expands the information about the prepositions over and provides the map of the meanings that preposition has. In this study, however, the object is only English preposition over, while the objects of the current study are English prepositions above, beyond, and over. If Tyler and Evans focus on the polysemy networks of preposition over, the present study discusses and analyzes further how the prepositions above, beyond, and over are translated and mapped into Indonesian.

2. The Conceptual Mapping of the English Preposition in into Arabic by Imran Ho-Abdullah and Amna Hasan (2009)

The research discusses the translation classification of the English preposition in in Arabic. The writer classifies it into three semantic mapping categories based on the four domains or relationships it has (spatial, temporal, area, and state). The writer follows certain theories in mapping the four domains of the source language and then finds the usage of them in the target language. The three semantic mapping categories are Same Domain Mapping (SDM), Zero Domain Mapping (ZDM), and Different Domain Mapping (DDM). The data the writer uses are derived from 75 Iraqi students aged 15-17 years old who are attending an Iraqi secondary school in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

In the conclusion, the writer points out that cross-linguistically, prepositions are a part of English and Arabic language constituents that exert influence on both languages. Therefore, using translation as a method might draw attention to the manipulation of language and to the fact that translation to Arabic may be mapped differently.

In this research, the method of the study the writer used is similar to the current study. It also has relevancy in the context of translating foreign prepositions into native prepositions and in the way it involves some respondents as one part of the methods the writer uses in conducting the study. While the object of this research is the preposition in and the research mentions that the differences in both languages that sometimes lead to errors in translation, the writer of the current study will only translate the English prepositions above, beyond, and over, map, and analyze them based on certain theories. The final mapping result of this study is also different from the current study. This study maps the translation of the preposition in based on the relationships it has, while the present study maps the translation of the prepositions above, beyond, and over

based on their meanings in certain contexts.

3.Back Translation as Means of Giving Translators a Voice by Uldis Ozolins (2009)

This study presents an overview of various aspects and challenges faced

in back translation (“blind” translation of the target language text back into the

source language to compare the target translation‟s fidelity with the original source), both from a theoretical perspective and based on a specific medical translation project that involved forward and back translation of detailed medical

surveys. The author presents common objections to the common methodology and practice of back translation and attempts to demonstrate positive aspects that had not been addressed in previous studies.

Aside from issues specific to the medical field, the author lists several aspects that are simultaneously benefits and complications of back translation, namely inevitable shifts in meaning due to differing grammatical and conceptual frameworks in different languages. Specifically mentioned are differences related to tense, number, gender, “scales of intensity” (differing gradations with regard to severity, probability, etc.), fundamental differences in phrasing (e.g., placement of noun modifiers), and cases where idiomatic usage in either language requires the addition or omission of words absent in the other (e.g., some languages lack an equivalent to English “some”).

This study is about Back Translation, which is also part of the present study. It is relevant to the current study primarily because it provides examples of issues that must be considered when performing and assessing back translations and judging equivalence between source and target texts. However, the object of both studies is quite different. The object in this study is related to medical field, while the current study has the objects from linguistic field, the English prepositions above, beyond, and over.

B.Review of Related Theories

1. Prototype Theory – a theory on spatial relationship of preposition

Geeraerts (1989 and 1990) stated that prototypical categories in general cannot be defined by means of a single set of criteria and sufficient attributes. Based on this theory, words, in this case preposition as one type of function words; do not have any obvious meaning when they stand alone, even though they have their dictionary meanings. The meaning of prepositions only can be seen after they appear with other words in certain contexts. In line with Geeraets, Taylor stated that senses of the prepositions of English cannot be captured in one or more core definitions consisting of a set of necessary and sufficient attributes (cf. Taylor 1988: 300-301) as they are prototypically structured polysemous lexical categories. Taylor mentioned that prepositions cannot be described by their polysemous senses and meanings alone because those might be different in different contexts.

Further, Geeraerts (2007: 168) points out the four hypotheses which concern prototype:

• Physiological, the sense is about something that is physically experienced.

• Referential, deals with the attributes or senses shared by the elements (words) that precede or follow the preposition.

• Statistical, related to the frequency of preposition‟s senses and also requires our ability to categorize. For example, despite the great exposure of a temporal sense caused by high frequency, we still perceive spatial relationship as the prototype of prepositions.

• Psychological (mental representation).

In analyzing the meanings of preposition above, beyond, and over,

prototype theory allows a flexible category by ruling out the classic approach which supports necessary and sufficient conditions. The category of prepositions may be fuzzily organized by human perceptions about the locative sense, which is prototypical (physical), and the metaphorical (psychological) senses. The writer will classify the meanings and senses of prepositions above, beyond, and over into Indonesian based on from their meanings when they are formed with other words that in certain contexts possible to be different. This writer will also consider the other words‟ meanings that structure in the contexts.

2. Prepositional Meanings

Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik in A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language mention the references of the prepositions above, beyond, and over (1985: 666) and determine their meanings seen from the relation of the semantic categories to their usual syntactic functions (1985: 673).

In the case of preposition above, its reference is relative position (vertical position). It also can be an intensifying preposition with the meaning „more than.‟ References for the preposition beyond are orientation (on the far side of) and exception (except (for)), while the preposition over has various references and senses such as relative position (vertical position), relative destination, passage (with verbs of motion, it expresses movement towards and then away from a place), orientation (on the far side of), resultative (the state of having reached the

destination), static pervasive, motion pervasive, accompanying circumstances,

„more than,‟ duration, and subject matter (on the object of).

Similar to the first theory by Geeraerts, the present study also uses this theory to determine the meanings of the prepositions above, beyond, and over

carry in all data by looking at the words structured them.

3. Types of Prepositions in Bahasa Indonesia

a. According to Alwi, et.al (1998: 288), in Indonesian there are two main types of preposition, Simple Preposition (Kata Depan Sejati) and Complex Preposition (Kata Depan Majemuk). Indonesian prepositions are used to indicate a relation of meaning between the front constituent and the back constituent.

i. Simple prepositions

They are di, ke, and dari. These three simple prepositions are used to relate words and show the relationships between words they connect. Semantically, prepositions in Indonesian have some common meanings, they are: 1. Place: di, ke, dari, sampai, antara

2. Allocation: bagi, untuk, buat, guna

3. Cause: karena, sebab, lantaran

4. Participation or manner: dengan, sambil, beserta, bersama

5. Participant: oleh

6. Time: pada, hingga, sampai, sejak

7. Situation: tentang, mengenai

8. Possession: dari

(Alwi, dkk, 1998: 295) ii. Complex Prepositions

They are di atas, ke sana, dari sana, etc. They are simple prepositions followed by an adverb of place.

b. According to Ramlan (1987: 63-71), the preposition ke is used to indicate the direction or movement to a targeted location while the preposition di shows a stative location. According to Muslich (2010), the preposition di expresses the spatial relationship of place or location where the object is located, the preposition

ke shows the spatial relationship of direction into a location or position, and the preposition dari also has a spatial relationship that shows the source direction or location and sometimes possession.

Based on these types and classification of Indonesian prepositions, the back translation of English prepositions above, beyond, and over in City of Ember

can be determined by the meanings or senses they have which are structured from other words they connect.

4. _{Theories of Equivalence}

According to Nida and Taber, there are two types of equivalence, namely formal and dynamic equivalent - they attempt to produce on their readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (cf. Nida's dynamic eq.).

Formal equivalence – “a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. It focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content.” It focuses on the message in the TL that has a similar structure (word level) to its ST, which contributes a strong influence in determining its accuracy. In Koller's framework of equivalence, formal equivalence is described in the situation when SL and TL words have similar orthographic or phonological features (Koller in Hatim, 2001: 28)

Dynamic equivalence – “a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TL audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience.” If formal equivalence focuses on the structure in order to seek the closest message or translation of a text, dynamic equivalence focuses on finding the TT message and effect on the TT readers as similar as in the ST. It is not only about the accuracy of conveying the ST message but also the naturalness of the TT.

To assess the back translation equivalence of the prepositions above, beyond, and over, Nida's and Taber‟s formal equivalence is more suitable since it sees the accuracy of a translation from the structure of the TT that should be as close as possible to the ST.

5. Theories of Back Translation

In a study of Questionnaires in Translation by Janet A. Harkness and Alicia Schoua-Glusberg (1998), they point out that back translation is considered a translation assessment tool/procedure instead of a translation method. It involves the translation of a text, which itself is a translation, back into the original/source language and it is most commonly used and recommended as a way to assess translation work (Werner and Campbell (1970).

According to Harkness and Glusberg, back translation functions as a way to compare/contrast and assess the back translation with the source text so that the quality of a translation can be revealed. They provide the steps or methods of back translation, which are:

a. A source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1) is translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT).

b. The TLT is translated back into the language of SLT1 by a second translator, unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there is an SLT1. This second translation, the back translation, is SLT2.

c. SLT1 is compared to SLT2.

d. On the basis of differences or similarities between SLT1 and SLT2, conclusions are drawn about the equivalence of TLT to SLT1.

The more identical SLT1 and SLT2 are, the greater the equivalence between the TLT and the SLT1 is considered to be. It implies that the quality of the translation is good. In the case of the prepositions above, beyond, and over, to assess whether their back translations are equivalent or not, it is necessary to look at their meanings or messages they carry both in the original source texts and their back translations.

C.Theoretical Framework

This study aims at answering the problems that have been stated previously. In this part, the application of the theories on the study will be explained. Theories on spatial relationships, the meanings of preposition, and theories on types of Indonesian preposition are applicable to answer the first problem question. There are four theories of preposition applied in this study. They are the Prototype Theory by Geeraets (1989), Prepositional Meanings in A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language by Randolph Quirk, Sidney

Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik, and theories on Type of Indonesian Preposition by Alwi, and Ramlan. Prototype Theory and Prepositional Meanings in A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language are applied to determine the meanings and expressions the prepositions above, beyond, and over carry, while theories on Type of Indonesian Preposition by Alwi, and Ramlan are bases for the writer to compare the meanings of the prepositions above, beyond, and

over after they are translated into Indonesian.

The second question deals with the effects of the translation equivalence of English prepositions above, beyond, and over which have been translated into Indonesian back to the original language. The Theory of Equivalence by Nida and Taber (1992) and Theory of Back Translation by Janet A. Harkness and Alicia Schoua-Glusberg (1998) are applicable to assess the back translations' equivalence since the definition of equivalence and back translation are required as the basic understanding of the topic being discussed in this study.

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

A.Areas of Research

In the field of translation studies, the current study applies the research area of text analysis and translation which focuses on classifying and analyzing the prepositions above, beyond, and over in the City of Ember as the source text and their translations in Indonesian. These Indonesian translations will later be translated back into English by some chosen respondents to find out whether or not they exhibit good equivalence with their original texts.

B.Object of the Study

The objects analyzed in this study are the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in the Kindle (E-book) version of Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember which was published in 2003 by Random House Children’s Books and

their Indonesian version which was translated by Sujatrini, Reno, and Rien Chaerani and published by Mizan Fantasi in 2009.

Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember is a work of science fiction that is very powerful because it taps into one of humans’ biggest fears, darkness. It is written in 18 chapters and it was first published in 2003. The writer of the book portrays a dying and isolated city surrounded by darkness. The two young characters, Lina Mayfleet and Doon Harrow, are trying to save their lives and the people of Ember by finding a way to leave their undergrounded city that is breaking down.

C.Method of the Study

The methods used in this study were both field and library research. Library research was required to get all information through books and websites about the focus of the study, including the theories relevant to the study. As part of the library research, the writer read not only both the English and Indonesian versions of City of Ember, but also a number of related studies and theories. The knowledge gained from this process provided a strong foundation to construct the survey to support the results of the study.

The field research was employed in the form of a survey using the back translation method to determine the equivalence of the English prepositions

above, beyond, and over, which were translated into Indonesian, with their original texts. The respondents of this study were foreign students from speaking English countries (specifically USA, Australia, and England), who have good comprehension of Indonesian.

The data in this study were primary data, meaning no data were taken from other studies. The writer collected the data consisting of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over and their translations only from the work of

City of Ember written by Jeanne DuPrau and its Indonesian version.

D.Research Procedure 1. Types of Data

a. Objective Data

The objective data were taken from Kindle (E-book) version of Jeanne

DuPrau’s City of Ember and its Indonesian translation. The original work was

published in 2003 by Random House Children’s Books. The work of fiction is 270 pages long. The Indonesian version of City of Ember was translated by Sujatrini, Reno, and Rien Chaerani and published by Mizan Fantasi in 2009 and is 312 pages long.

The data consisted of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over in the form of prepositional phrases found in City of Ember. The total number of the data points from this work was 108, which were divided into 13 data points with the preposition above, 14 data points with the preposition beyond, and 81 data points with the preposition over. All of these data points are in the form of prepositional phrases only.

b. Affective Data

The affective data were the information gained from the respondents through a questionnaire (Sutopo, 2002: 20). They were collected to determine the equivalence of the prepositions above, beyond, and over with their original texts.

In order to get the affective data, the writer conducted a survey with five respondents. The purpose of the survey was to collect the back translation data. The respondents were five native English speakers who learn and comprehend both English and Indonesian so that the back translations they performed were considered qualified. They came from different backgrounds, ages, and nationalities. They were coded as R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5. R1 was a student and

also a teacher from the USA; R2 was a student from the USA; R3 was a British student; R4 was an Australian student; and R5 was a student from the USA. They were asked to translate 20 data points chosen from Indonesian back into English.

2. Data Collection

In the study, data were collected in two methods; document analysis and field survey via questionnaire.

a. Document Analysis

In collecting data for this study, the writer started with reading activity. The materials in this reading process were the E-book version of Jeanne DuPrau’s fiction, City of Ember, and the Indonesian translation of City of Ember. First, all data containing prepositions above, beyond, and over in the source text were highlighted. The writer searched for their Indonesian translations and highlighted them as well.

The writer then identified the highlighted data that were related to the topic in the study (prepositions that form prepositional phrase only) and classified them into three different groups of prepositions. Next, the writer typed all data and gave a number to each data point.

For example, the data from the group with preposition above would be presented like in the table below.

Number of Data Source Text Number of Data Target Text

1/ST/Abv/1/12 At least then she could have stayed

above ground, with space and people around her.

1/TT/Abv/1/14 Setidaknya dia dapat tinggal di atas tanah, dengan ruang yang luas dan orang-orang di sekelilingnya

In the numbering assigned to datum 1/ST/Abv/1/12, ‘1’ means the first data of all, ‘ST’ means it was data from the Source Text, ‘Abv’ referred to above, meaning it was data with the preposition above, and the other ‘1’ there means the first data from the group with the preposition above, while ‘12’ is the page where the data was taken from. The numbering for datum 1/TT/Abv/1/14 has the same

explanation, except for the ‘TT’ there, which means Target Text.

b. Survey

The following method in collecting the data was field survey. After all data both in English and Indonesian were collected and mapped, the writer conducted a survey with some English native speakers as the respondents and asked them to translate the 20 selected Indonesian data points back into English. The results of the survey, based on the theory applied, were used to look at the equivalence of the English prepositions above, beyond, and over to their originals through the reverse translation method.

3. Population and Sample

The populations of this study were the prepositions above, beyond, and

over at the prepositional phrase level found in the Indonesian translation of City of Ember by Sujatrini, Reno, and Rien Chaerani. The total population size is 108 data points. Next, 20 samples were purposively selected from the population for analysis. They were chosen not based on the amount of data but to represent each

form of those English prepositions’ translations. This sample selection is called internal sampling (Sutopo, 2002: 55) because qualitative research is concerned with emphasizing deep and complete information rather than the amount of data.

4. Data Validity

In order to guarantee the data validity, especially in the second problem, triangulation techniques were done in this study. According to Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif: Dasar Teori dan Terapannya dalam Penelitian proposed by Sutopo (2002: 78), the triangulation techniques applied in this study were source triangulation and methodological triangulation.

Source triangulation is a technique having or involving more than one respondent to analyze, assess, or collect the same qualitative data. This was done by presenting samples of the data chosen in a survey form and distributing them to five respondents. They were asked to translate the data into Indonesian. The survey involved participants from different backgrounds, though they all are native speakers of English who have studied Indonesian. The fact that data translated by different respondents produced different results led the writer to attempt to find out the reasons for the differences. The following diagram describes the application of source triangulation.

Sources

Figure 2. The Diagram of Source Triangulation

R1, United States, Student, Teacher

R2, United States, Student R3, Britain, Student R4, Australia, Student R5, United States, Student

Methodological triangulation is a technique in qualitative research that uses more than one method in collecting, assessing, or analyzing the same data. The two methods applied in this study were survey and content analysis. In the first method, the writer conducted a survey done by five respondents to find out the equivalence of Indonesian prepositions in English. In the second method, the writer compared and analyzed the results of the survey using some existing theories about English prepositions. The following diagram explains the application of methodological triangulation in this study.

Methods

Figure 3. The Diagram of Methodological Triangulation

5. Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted on both the English and Indonesian versions of Jeanne DuPrau’s City of Ember. To answer the first problem, the writer read the English version of the work and identified all the prepositional phrases with the prepositions above, beyond, and over found in the E-book. Similar steps were also done for the target text ofCity of Ember. The writer read the book and mapped all the translations of the English data with the prepositions

above, beyond, and over from the source text. This process of mapping required some additional activities such as dividing the data into three groups – groups of data with the prepositions above, beyond, and over, and identifying the

Document Analysis

relationships and expressions each preposition carries in each data point. In identifying the meanings of the preposition, it required looking at two other elements following and preceding it. They are presented in the form of tables. The writer then identified what categories determine the translations or why they are translated such a way based on the existing theories on Indonesian prepositions, before they are mapped and put into the table of translation mapping.

Number of Data Source Text Number of Data Target Text

1/ST/Abv/1/12 At least then she could have stayed

above ground, with space and people around her.

1/TT/Abv/1/14 Setidaknya dia dapat tinggal di atas tanah, dengan ruang yang luas dan orang-orang di sekelilingnya. 2/ST/Abv/2/17 On the street level

were shops; above

the shops were the apartments where people lived.

2/TT/Abv/2/19 Di pinggir jalan terdapat toko-toko; di atas toko-toko ada apartemen tempat orang-orang tinggal.

Table 2. The Example of the Group of Data with Preposition above

Before going to the final mapping, the writer analyzed the meaning each preposition carries. It is analyzed based on the other elements or words that structure the sentence or phrase and also based on some existing theories on preposition. Below is the example of the table of the meanings of preposition above.

Number of Data Object precede the preposition

Preposition Object follow the preposition

Meaning

1/ST/Abv/1/12 Stayed above Ground On top of

2/ST/Abv/2/17 The

apartments

above The shops On top of

The example of final mapping table of prepositions above, in Indonesian is presented in the form of the following table.

English Preposition

Indonesian Translation

Number of Data Indonesian Word Class

Above Di atas 1/TT/Abv/1/14 Preposition

Table 4. The Example of the Translation Mapping of Preposition above

In order to answer the second problem, the writer conducted a survey by giving a form containing 20 selected Indonesian data points to five native English respondents and asked them to translate the data back into English. The writer then collected the survey forms, put them in the table, examined the results, and discussed whether the equivalence is the same or different based on the theories used.

As the writer mentioned above, before analyzing the equivalence of back translations that have been collected, the writer first put them in the form of table as follows.

Number of Data

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Above Beyond Over

36/TT/Ovr/9/38 Over Over Over Over Over - - 5

32/TT/Ovr/5/21 Over Over Over Over Beyond - 1 4

5/TT/Abv/5/51 Above Above Above Above Above 5 - -

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The analysis in this study is divided into two main sections. Some tables preceded by their explanation are required in the first section and one single table that is directly followed by the discussion is required in the second section.

The first section is mapping of the translation of English data contain prepositions above, beyond, and over in Indonesian. It is divided into three sub sections or groups, translation mapping of preposition above, preposition beyond, and preposition over. Each sub section contains three tables preceded by the description or explanation of what each table is about. The data are specified only in the form of prepositional phrases which are taken from Jeanne DuPrau‘s fictional work City of Ember. The total populations of the data are 108, including 13 data points with the preposition above, 14 with the preposition beyond, and 81 data points with the preposition over.

The second section, as the writer mentioned above in one way of collecting the data, is conducting a survey completed by some English native speakers who have studied Indonesian. They are asked to translate 20 selected Indonesian data points back into English. From the results of the survey, the writer focuses on analyzing prepositions they choose and the meanings and messages these prepositions carry in each data point. The writer collects these

translated data from respondents, puts them into a table, and examines their equivalence to their original source texts.

A.Translation Mapping of Prepositions above, beyond and over in Indonesian

Based on the data collection of the study the writer mentioned previously, in the mapping process, the writer divides all the populations of data found into three groups – data containing the preposition above, beyond, and over

from the source text and their Indonesian translations. The writer then identifies the relationships and expressions those prepositions carry in each data point, both in source and target text. The identification of their relationships and expressions is based on two existing theories on prepositions, a prototype theory from Geeraerts and a theory of prepositional meanings by Quirk et al. The specific translation of the prepositions is what the writer calls mapping, which are also presented in the form of tables.

1. Translation Mapping and the Meanings of Preposition above

There are 13 data points with the preposition above found in the fictional work City of Ember and all of them are translated into the same word in Indonesian, di atas. In the table below, the writer puts one example of datum with preposition above both in ST and TT.

Preposition Number of Data

Source Text Number of Data

Target Text

Above 1/ST/Abv/1

/12

At least then she could have stayed

above ground, with space and people around her.

1/TT/Abv/1 /14

Setidaknya dia dapat tinggal di atas tanah, dengan ruang yang luas dan orang-orang di sekelilingnya.

The meaning of prepositions in English cannot be captured in one or more core definitions consisting of a set of necessary and sufficient attributes (cf. Taylor 1988: 300-301), as they are prototypically structured polysemous lexical categories. Based on Geeraerts‘ prototype theory (2007: 168), there are four hypotheses which concern prototype, one of them being referential. It deals with the attributes or senses shared by the elements (words) that precede or follow the preposition. The reference for preposition above according to Quirk et al. (1985: 666) is relative position. In those 13 data points, the preposition above expresses the relative position vertically (vertical position) of two objects, one being that represented by its complement. Combining both theories, the meanings of these 13 data points with the preposition above are presented in the table below.

Number of Data Object precede the preposition

Preposition Object follow the preposition

Meaning

1/ST/Abv/1/12 Stayed above Ground On top of

(vertical position) 2/ST/Abv/2/17 The apartments above The shops On top of

(vertical position) 3/ST/Abv/3/26 Shelves above The refrigerator On top of

(vertical position)

4/ST/Abv/4/44 Storerooms above That On top of

(vertical position) 5/ST/Abv/5/45 tons of earth and

rock and buildings

above Him On top of

(vertical position) 6/ST/Abv/6/90 The shelf above The coatrack On top of

(vertical position) 7/ST/Abv/7/115 a foot above his upstretched

hand

On top of (vertical position)

Number of Data Object precede the preposition

Preposition Object follow the preposition

Meaning

8/ST/Abv/8/136 The space above The buildings On top of (vertical position) 9/ST/Abv/9/167 Shelves full of

bottles of seeds

above The table On top of (vertical position)

10/ST/Abv/10/239 Space above Her On top of

(vertical position)

11/ST/Abv/11/240 Appeared above It On top of

(vertical position) 12/ST/Abv/12/242 Ten feet above Their heads On top of

(vertical position) 13/ST/Abv/13/255 the silver circle above the highest

branch of the tall plant.

On top of (vertical position)

Table 7. The Meanings of Preposition above

In Indonesian, According to Alwi, et.al (1998: 288), Prepositions are divided into two main types, Simple Preposition (Kata Depan Sejati) and Complex Preposition (Kata Depan Majemuk). They are used to indicate a relation of meaning between the front constituent and the back constituent. Di- is a simple preposition that indicates place, while di atas is a complex preposition that is formed of a simple preposition and an adverb of place. According to Ramlan (1987: 63-71), the preposition di shows a stative location, while according to Muslich (2010), the preposition di expresses the spatial relationship of place or location where the object is located.

Based on the theories of preposition from both sides, English and Indonesian, prepositions above and di atas in those 13 data share similar

relationships and meanings. They both express spatial relationships and indicate a place, vertical position, and location.

From 13 data points with the preposition above found in the fictional work City of Ember, all of them are translated into the same word in Indonesian,

di atas. Since all of the data are translated into the same Indonesian preposition, in the translation mapping of preposition above below, the writer just present one of them.

English Preposition

Indonesian Translation

Number of Data Indonesian Word Class

Above Di atas 1/TT/Abv/1/14 Preposition

Table 8. The Translation Mapping of Preposition above

2. Translation Mapping and the Meanings of Preposition beyond

Data with preposition beyond found in the work City of Ember are 14. They are translated into several different words in Indonesian. In the table of the group of data with preposition beyond below, the writer only presents some of them that represent each case of the translation.

Preposition Number of Data

Source Text Number of Data

Target Text Beyond 15/ST/Byn/

2/25

She had stood at the edge of the trash heaps and gazed into the darkness beyond

the city—the Unknown Regions.

15/TT/Byn/ 2/28

Dia telah berdiri di tepian tempat pembuangan sampah dan memandang ke kegelapan di luar

kota—Daerah Tak Diketahui.

16/ST/Byn/ 3/36

Maybe from there it would be possible to see

beyond the city, into the Unknown Regions.

16/TT/Byn/ 3/40

Mungkin dari sana dia akan bisa melihat ke luar

area kota, ke Daerah Tak Diketahui.

Preposition Number of Data

Source Text Number of Data

Target Text

Beyond 20/ST/Byn/

7/62

Out beyond the trash heaps, a figure appeared. 20/TT/Byn/7 /71 Dari balik tumpukan sampah, muncul sesosok manusia. 21/ST/Byn/ 8/94

The chewed bits were beyond

saving—they were almost a paste.

21/TT/Byn/8 /104

Potongan-potongan yang dikunyah tak dapat

diselamatkan— potongan itu sudah seperti gumpalan lem.*

23/ST/Byn/ 10/244

But a few steps farther along, she found she could stand up straight again, and a few steps

beyond that she turned a corner,…

23/TT/Byn/1 0/270

Namun, beberapa langkah di depan, Lina ternyata bisa kembali berdiri tegak, dan beberapa langkah

sesudahnya dia melewati sebuah sudut,…

25/ST/Byn/ 12/253

Down the slope was a tumble of dark, rounded shapes, and then another slope rose beyond

that.

25/TT/Byn/1 2/280

Di bawah lereng terdapat wujud-wujud gelap dan bulat, dan kemudian ada tanjakan lain di atasnya. 26/ST/Byn/

13/268

A few feet

beyond their shoes was a sheer, dizzying drop.

26/TT/Byn/1 3/299

Beberapa meter di depan kaki mereka tampak sebuah jurang terjal yang memusingkan.

Table 9. The Group of Data with Preposition beyond

To find out the meaning and relationship the preposition beyond carries in those 14 data points, it is necessary to see other words that structure them. Quirk et al. mention the references of the preposition beyond (1985: 666) and determine its meanings seen from the relation of the semantic categories to their usual syntactic functions (1985: 673). References for the preposition beyond are orientation (on the far side of) and exception (except (for)). Geeraerts and Taylor have stated in their Prototype Theory that prepositions cannot be described by

12. Kebingungan tampak di wajahnya.

The image of confusion appeared over his face

13. Di bawah lereng terdapat wujud-wujud gelap dan bulat, dan kemudian ada tanjakan lain di atasnya.

Below the slopes are dark rounded forms, and then there are other ramps above them. 14. Inilah buku-buku Kota Ember, ditulis selama bertahun-tahun oleh warganya.

These are Kota Embar books, written over the years by citizens.

15. Di pinggir jalan terdapat toko-toko; di atas toko-toko ada apartemen tempat orang-orang tinggal.

At the edge of the street are shops, beyone the shops are apartments where people live. 16. Sekarang Lina kembali bersama Bu Polster, yang sedang berdiri di dekat Lina dan

melafalkan pesannya.

Now Lina is going back together with Mr. Polstor, that is stood over Lina and reciting passages.

17. Beberapa meter di depan kaki mereka tampak sebuah jurang terjal yang memusingkan. A few meters beyond their feet was a dizzying cliff.

18. Mataku menyapu perbukitan berwarna perak,… My eyes swept over the sliver hills

19. Di atas meja terdapat rak-rak berisi botol benih, kotak senar, kawat, dan bermacam-macam serbuk.

Above the table there are shelves of bottles seed boxes, strings, wire, and an assortment of powder.

20. Ketika menyala, lampu-lampu itu memancarkan sinar kekuning-kuningan sepanjang

jalan;…

When lit, the lights emit a yellowish light over the street Thank you very much for your time and effort!

Regards, Vina

Appendix 12: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 4 (R4)

First name: Edwina

Country of origin: Australia

Status (student, professional, etc.): Student Total time spent in Indonesia: 2.5 months

Based on my understanding of bahasa Indonesia, I found it made more sense to translate some of the sentences using words other than ‘above’, ‘beyond’ or ‘over’. In these cases I have written my preferred translation in blue. I have also written a second translation using ‘above’, ‘beyond’ or ‘over’ in red. However, the meanings are quite different.

1. Lina membungkuk di atasBuku Kota Ember dan membaca beberapa kalimatnya. Lina bent over the Book of theCity of Ember and read a few sentences.

2. “Aku bisa lompat kodok melewatitempat sampah!”

"I can leapfrog over the trash!"

3. Jadi itu artinya, dia kini berada lima belas meter di bawah tanah, dengan berton ton batu, tanah, dan bangunan di atasnya.

So that means she is now fifteen feet underground with tons of rocks, earth, and buildings above her.

4. Kapten Fleery kembali menegakkan tubuhnya dan menepukkan tangannya ke dadanya. Captain Fleery lifted his body and clapped his hands above his chest.

5. “Di luarKota Ember, kegelapan tak ada habisnya di segala penjuru.”

Beyond the City of Ember, the darkness is endless in every direction. 6. Cairan berwarna merah mengaliri tangannya.

Red liquid flowed over his hands.

7. Di seluruh ruangan, kaleng-kaleng berminyak dan sejumlah peralatan tampak berserakan di lantai.

Beyond the room, oil cans and equipment appeared scattered on the floor. 8. Lina tak dapat melihat ke luar daerah itu kecuali kegelapan. Lina could not see anything beyond that place except for darkness.

9. Lina mendekatinya dengan waspada, dan mengintip ke arah massa yang berkumpul di Alun-Alun Harken.

Lina approached cautiously and peered over the crowd that gathered in Harken Square. 10. Rasa takut meliputi segenap kota.

Fear covered over city.

11. Dari balik tumpukan sampah, muncul sesosok manusia. Beyond a pile of garbage, a human figure appeared.

12. Kebingungan tampak di wajahnya. Confusion spread over her face.

13. Di bawah lereng terdapat wujud-wujud gelap dan bulat, dan kemudian ada tanjakan lain

di atasnya.

Beneath the slopes, dark and round forms can be found, and then there is another climb over it. 14. Inilah buku-buku Kota Ember, ditulis selama bertahun-tahun oleh warganya.

These are the books of the City of Ember, written over the years by its citizens.

15. Di pinggir jalan terdapat toko-toko; di atas toko-toko ada apartemen tempat orang-orang tinggal.

16. Sekarang Lina kembali bersama Bu Polster, yang sedang berdiri di dekat Lina dan melafalkan pesannya.

Now Lina had returned together with Mrs Polster, who was standing over Lina and pronouncing her message.

17. Beberapa meter di depan kaki mereka tampak sebuah jurang terjal yang memusingkan. A few meters beyond their feet appeared a dizzying steep ravine.

18. Mataku menyapu perbukitan berwarna perak,… My eyes swept over silver hills.

19. Di atas meja terdapat rak-rak berisi botol benih, kotak senar, kawat, dan bermacam-macam serbuk.

Above the table were shelves containing bottles of seeds, boxes of string, wire, and an assortment of powder.

20. Ketika menyala, lampu-lampu itu memancarkan sinar kekuning-kuningan sepanjang

jalan;…

Appendix 13: The Result of Back Translation from Respondent 5 (R5)

Dear respondent,

Thank you for agreeing to take this survey. The data collected will be used for my

bachelor’s thesis on the English prepositions above, beyond, and over at Sanata Dharma University. Before starting the survey, please fill out the following information. I will use a coding method in analyzing the data, so that your name will not be used in my thesis directly.

First name: Megan

Country of origin: United States of America Status (student, professional, etc.): Student Total time spent in Indonesia: About 10 months

Please translate the Indonesian sentences provided below into English, using one of the prepositions above, beyond, or over for the section highlighted in bold and italics. Note that some of these sections do not necessarily use prepositions in Indonesian (e.g., verb melewati, or suffix –i

in verb mengaliri) but can be translated into English using above,beyond,orover. Number 18 is methaporical and can also be translated with one of those prepositions.

If you prefer, feel free to type and submit the translations directly via e-mail to vina.oke@gmail.com.

1. Lina membungkuk di atasBuku Kota Ember dan membaca beberapa kalimatnya.

…Lina bent over the book Ember Cityand read a few sentences. ……… 2. “Aku bisa lompat kodok melewatitempat sampah!”

……I can leapfrog beyond* the trash area! ……*beyond is actually a little strange here, I

would say past………

3. Jadi itu artinya, dia kini berada lima belas meter di bawah tanah, dengan berton ton batu, tanah, dan bangunan di atasnya.

…So that means it's now fifteen meters below ground with tons of rock, soil, and

construction above* it…*above is a little strange here too, I would say on top of 4. Kapten Fleery kembali menegakkan tubuhnya dan menepukkan tangannya ke dadanya.

…Captain Flerry straightened back up and clapped his hands to his

chest………

… above, beyond, or overdo not fit here.………

5. “Di luarKota Ember, kegelapan tak ada habisnya di segala penjuru.”

……Beyond* the Ember City, the darkness is endless everywhere. Or

Beyond* the Ember City, the darkness extends to every corner ………

……*outside is a better choice………

6. Cairan berwarna merah mengaliri tangannya.

…The red liquid runs over* his hands ……*I'd say 'runs down his hands instead.

7. Di seluruh ruangan, kaleng-kaleng berminyak dan sejumlah peralatan tampak berserakan di lantai.

……All over the room, oily cans and some equipment were strewn across the

floor………

8. Lina tak dapat melihat ke luar daerah itu kecuali kegelapan.

darkness.………

9. Lina mendekatinya dengan waspada, dan mengintip ke arah massa yang berkumpul di Alun-Alun Harken.

…Linda cautiously came closer, and looked into the crowd gathered in Harken Square.……

above, beyond, or over do not fit

here.………

10. Rasa takut meliputi segenap kota.

…A sense of fear covers over* the entire city. ………

…*Sounds more natural to just say 'A sense of fear covers the entire city.' ………

11. Dari balik tumpukan sampah, muncul sesosok manusia.

…From behind a pile of garbage, a human figure appeared. …… above, beyond, or over do not fit

here.………

12. Kebingungan tampak di wajahnya.

…There was confusion all over his face.

13. Di bawah lereng terdapat wujud-wujud gelap dan bulat, dan kemudian ada tanjakan lain di atasnya.

…… Under the slopes were dark, round forms, and then were are other hills above*

it.………

14. Inilah buku-buku Kota Ember, ditulis selama bertahun-tahun oleh warganya.

…The Ember City books were written over several years by its

citizens………

15. Di pinggir jalan terdapat toko-toko; di atas toko-toko ada apartemen tempat orang-orang tinggal.

…On the side of the road there are shops, and over (or on top of) the shops are apartments

where people live.……… ………

16. Sekarang Lina kembali bersama Bu Polster, yang sedang berdiri di dekat Lina dan melafalkan pesannya.

Now Lina is coming back together with Mrs. Polster, who is standing near Lina and reciting her message. above, beyond, or over do not fit

17. Beberapa meter di depan kaki mereka tampak sebuah jurang terjal yang memusingkan.

…A few meters beyond their feet... in front of is more natural here 18. Mataku menyapu perbukitan berwarna perak,…

…My eyes swept over the silver hills………

19. Di atas meja terdapat rak-rak berisi botol benih, kotak senar, kawat, dan bermacam-macam serbuk.

…… On top of the table are shelves of bottles seed boxes, strings, wire, and an assortment

of powder.…… …………

……… above, beyond, or over do not fit.

20. Ketika menyala, lampu-lampu itu memancarkan sinar kekuning-kuningan sepanjang

jalan;…

… When lit, those lamps emit a yellowish light over the entire street. Thank you very much for your time and effort!

Regards, Vina

Appendix 14: The Result of Back Translation from Five Respondents

Number of Data

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

36/TT/Ovr/9/38 Over Over Over Over Over

32/TT/Ovr/5/21 Over Over Over Over Beyond

5/TT/Abv/5/51 Above Above Above Above Above

49/TT/Ovr/22/109 Over Over Over Above

14/TT/Byn/1/28 Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond

107/TT/Ovr/80/298 Over - Over Over Over

39/TT/Ovr/12/53 - - Over Beyond Over

18/TT/Byn/5/41 Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond

92/TT/Ovr/65/244 Over Over Over Over

47/TT/Ovr/20/95 Over Above - Over Over

20/TT/Byn/7/71 Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond

48/TT/Ovr/21/108 Over Over Over Over Over

25/TT/Byn/12/280 Beyond Above Above Over Above

55/TT/Ovr/28/130 Over Over Over Over Over

2/TT/Abv/2/19 Above Above Beyond Above Over

34/TT/Ovr/7/33 Over Over Over Over

26/TT/Byn/13/299 Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond Beyond

103/TT/Ovr/76/291 Over Above Over Over Over

9/TT/Abv/9/184 Over Above Above Above