Development of the Cigarette

more฀easily฀ [17] .฀In฀1913,฀Reynolds฀used฀Burley฀tobacco฀for฀the฀production฀of฀his฀Camel฀ cigarettes฀ [18] .฀ This฀ tobacco฀ blend฀ became฀ the฀ prototype฀ for฀ the฀ American฀ cigarette,฀ whereas฀British฀cigarettes฀were฀also฀produced฀with฀Virginia฀tobacco. Compared฀with฀the฀acrid฀and฀strong-tasting฀smoke฀of฀cigars,฀cigarette฀smoke฀is฀more฀ pleasant,฀and฀this฀can฀be฀attributed฀to฀the฀pH฀of฀the฀smoke฀ [17] .฀Where฀pH฀is฀in฀the฀alkaline฀ range,฀nicotine฀in฀the฀smoke฀is฀present฀predominantly฀in฀its฀free฀form฀but฀is฀not฀found฀in฀ the฀gaseous฀phase.฀This฀smoke฀is฀dificult฀to฀inhale฀because฀of฀the฀acrid฀taste฀of฀nicotine.฀ The฀fact฀that฀nicotine฀is฀nevertheless฀absorbed฀when฀a฀cigar฀is฀smoked฀is฀due฀to฀its฀slower฀ passage฀across฀the฀buccal฀mucosa,฀the฀membrane฀lining฀the฀mouth฀ [5] . Cigarette฀smoking฀irst฀became฀widespread฀during฀the฀Crimean฀War฀1853–1856:฀sol- diers฀became฀accustomed฀to฀smoking฀strong฀Russian฀cigarettes,฀and฀took฀the฀habit฀back฀ with฀them฀to฀their฀own฀countries฀when฀hostilities฀ended.฀One฀St.฀Petersburg฀cigarette฀fac- tory฀the฀Yenidse฀Company฀opened฀its฀irst฀subsidiary฀in฀Dresden฀in฀1862.฀The฀irst฀cig- arette-making฀machine,฀with฀an฀hourly฀output฀of฀3,600฀cigarettes,฀was฀displayed฀by฀the฀ Susini฀Company฀from฀Havana฀at฀the฀Paris฀World฀Exhibition฀in฀1867.฀By฀the฀1880s,฀US฀ companies฀followed฀suit฀with฀their฀own฀cigarette-making฀machines.฀As฀a฀result,฀produc- tion฀costs฀fell฀dramatically,฀new฀markets฀opened฀up,฀and฀young฀people฀around฀the฀age฀of฀ 18฀became฀a฀major฀consumer฀market฀for฀the฀irst฀time฀ [19] .฀Thus,฀smoking฀took฀on฀a฀new฀ face:฀smoking฀as฀a฀leisurely฀pastime฀was฀replaced฀by฀smoking฀at฀short฀intervals,฀mainly฀ as฀a฀means฀of฀coping฀with฀stress.฀Unlike฀the฀cigar฀or฀a฀pipe,฀a฀cigarette฀can฀be฀smoked฀in฀ 3–5฀min:฀the฀smoking฀break฀can฀be฀equated฀with฀“the฀time฀it฀takes฀to฀smoke฀a฀cigarette”.฀ The฀cigarette฀came฀to฀symbolise฀modern฀twentieth฀century฀living฀see฀Table฀ 1.1 . Because฀smoking฀was฀always฀subject฀to฀certain฀restrictions,฀it฀both฀represented฀some- thing฀ “special”฀ and,฀ in฀ the฀ nineteenth฀ century,฀ was฀ invariably฀ associated฀ with฀ political฀ freedom฀movements.฀Following฀the฀outbreak฀of฀Asian฀inluenza฀in฀the฀summer฀of฀1831,฀ cigar฀smoking฀in฀public฀places฀was฀permitted฀as฀a฀protection฀against฀infection฀ [7] ,฀and฀the฀ right฀to฀smoke฀in฀public฀was฀on฀the฀list฀of฀demands฀at฀the฀Hambach฀Festival฀in฀1832.฀ During฀the฀student฀protests฀of฀1968,฀it฀was฀even฀demanded฀that฀the฀ban฀on฀smoking฀in฀ lecture฀theatres฀be฀lifted฀and฀that฀smokers’฀corners฀be฀set฀up฀in฀schools฀or฀universities.฀In฀ wartime฀too,฀the฀soldiers฀of฀all฀armies฀have฀always฀been฀liberally฀supplied฀with฀cigarettes฀ to฀boost฀their฀ighting฀morale฀and฀readiness฀for฀battle฀ [8] . Within฀ about฀ 100฀ years,฀ the฀ cigarette฀ industry฀ rose฀ to฀ become฀ one฀ of฀ the฀ foremost฀ branches฀of฀industry฀ [20] ฀see฀Table฀ 1.1 . Country Before฀1914 1927 1928 Germany 195 302 499 England 201 811 – France ฀ 96 248 326 Holland – 341 – Italy 104 372 – Sweden 115 233 – USA 143 798 a 840 a Table 1.1 ฀฀฀Cigarette฀consumption฀in฀various฀countries฀during฀the฀irst฀third฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century Per-capita฀statistics฀from฀ [7] a In฀the฀USA฀97,000฀million฀cigarettes฀were฀smoked฀in฀1927฀and฀106,000฀million฀in฀1928

1.5 Objections to Smoking on Health Grounds

In฀the฀nineteenth฀century,฀smoking฀was฀not฀viewed฀from฀the฀standpoint฀of฀enjoyment.฀ After฀the฀prohibition฀on฀smoking฀was฀abolished,฀the฀respectable฀middle-classes฀started฀to฀ voice฀their฀criticism฀on฀smoking฀which,฀even฀then,฀were฀intended฀primarily฀to฀protect฀ young฀people.฀In฀one฀of฀his฀paintings฀from฀18851886฀Skull฀with฀burning฀cigarette,฀see฀ Fig.฀ 1.3 ,฀the฀Dutch฀artist฀Vincent฀van฀Gogh฀himself฀a฀pipe฀smoker฀foreshadowed฀the฀ role฀the฀cigarette฀was฀to฀play฀in฀the฀century฀to฀come.฀Even฀then,฀with฀smoking฀perceived฀ as฀ a฀ speciic฀ social฀ problem฀ prevalent฀ among฀ 10–12-year-old฀ boys฀ [8] ,฀ there฀ were฀ ฀complaints฀about฀“wayward”฀young฀smokers.฀Parents,฀teachers฀and฀educators฀were฀told฀ that฀they฀had:฀…฀“a฀serious฀duty฀to฀make฀young฀people฀aware฀of฀the฀great฀dangers฀of฀ ฀premature฀use฀of฀the฀narcotic฀tobacco,฀an฀activity฀that฀destroys฀their฀physical฀and฀mental฀ well-being”฀ [8] . In฀the฀second฀half฀of฀the฀nineteenth฀century,฀both฀in฀the฀USA฀and฀in฀Europe฀including฀ Germany฀and฀Austria,฀anti-tobacco฀associations฀were฀formed฀because฀newer฀insights฀into฀ the฀chemical฀processes฀of฀nature฀and฀of฀human฀life฀itself฀had฀raised฀concerns฀about฀the฀ health-related฀ consequences฀ of฀ smoking฀ [21] .฀ Education฀ was฀ required฀ concerning฀ the฀ Fig. 1.3 ฀฀฀Vincent฀van฀Gogh:฀ Skull฀with฀burning฀cigarette฀ 18851886 dangers฀of฀tobacco฀use฀and฀misuse฀ [22] .฀As฀a฀result,฀smoking฀perceptions฀have฀undergone฀ a฀complete฀transformation฀–฀the฀“sophisticated”฀habit฀of฀the฀1930s฀is฀a฀lethal฀addiction฀in฀ the฀ new฀ millennium.฀ What฀ was฀ considered฀ an฀ appropriate฀ social฀ behaviour,฀ frequently฀ endorsed฀by฀the฀medical฀profession฀cf.฀Fig.฀ 1.4 ,฀has฀now฀been฀established฀as฀an฀antisocial฀ behaviour.฀Nevertheless,฀the฀tobacco฀industry฀unrestrainedly฀advertised฀its฀products฀in฀the฀ medical฀journals฀cf.฀Fig.฀ 1.4 ฀and฀among฀young฀people฀who฀were฀very฀soon฀familiar฀with฀ all฀the฀major฀cigarette฀brands฀Fig.฀ 1.5 . In฀ 1821,฀ the฀ physician฀ Posselt฀ and฀ the฀ chemist฀ Reimann฀ described฀ a฀ milky฀ distillate฀ obtained฀from฀fresh฀and฀dried฀tobacco฀leaves฀ [24] ฀and฀in฀1828,฀they฀isolated฀nicotine฀as฀the฀ principal฀alkaloid฀of฀tobacco฀ [8,฀25] .฀Trommsdorff฀also฀studied฀extracts฀from฀tobacco฀plants฀ [26] ,฀but฀his฀research฀was฀not฀as฀fruitful฀as฀that฀of฀Posselt฀and฀Reimann.฀At฀that฀time,฀this฀ poisonous฀alkaloid฀fuelled฀numerous฀debates฀about฀the฀harmfulness฀of฀smoking,฀based฀on฀ evidence฀from฀various฀experiments฀on฀animals฀with฀nicotine฀dating฀back฀to฀the฀seventeenth฀ century฀ [8] :฀Conrad฀Gesner฀had฀observed฀that฀dogs฀vomited฀when฀they฀were฀administered฀a฀ small฀quantity฀of฀powdered,฀dried฀tobacco฀leaves.฀The฀irst฀Bocarme฀poisoning฀trial฀before฀ a฀Belgian฀court฀in฀1850฀attracted฀great฀interest,฀particularly฀when฀the฀chemist฀Stas฀detected฀ the฀alkaloid฀nicotine฀in฀the฀corpse฀ [8] .฀This฀case฀prompted฀numerous฀animal฀experiments฀ with฀nicotine฀to฀permit฀further฀elucidation฀of฀its฀effects.฀The฀animal฀experiments฀described฀ by฀Tiedemann,฀working฀in฀conjunction฀with฀the฀anatomist฀Bischoff฀in฀Gießen,฀were฀con- ducted฀in฀frogs,฀rabbits,฀and฀dogs฀after฀he฀had฀received฀nicotine฀base฀from฀Dr.฀Merck฀of฀ Darmstadt฀ [8] .฀These฀experiments฀described฀the฀high฀toxicity฀and฀rapid฀onset฀of฀poisoning฀ followed฀by฀the฀death฀of฀animals.฀In฀a฀letter฀to฀Theodor฀Zwinger,฀Conrad฀Gesner฀described฀ the฀pattern฀of฀poisoning฀following฀excessive฀tobacco฀consumption฀in฀the฀following฀terms:฀ “folii฀particula฀fumum฀haurientem฀subito฀inebriat,฀ut฀ipse฀non฀semel฀expertus฀sum”฀ [8] . Concepts฀such฀as฀acute฀and฀chronic฀nicotine฀poisoning฀were฀introduced.฀Symptoms฀ described฀in฀humans฀included฀agitation,฀stupor,฀cough,฀accelerated฀breathing,฀nausea,฀and฀ vomiting฀etc.฀ [8] .฀Long-term฀damage฀chronic฀glossitis,฀pharyngitis,฀tonsillitis,฀and฀cancer฀ of฀the฀tongue฀was฀already฀being฀reported฀as฀early฀as฀150฀years฀ago฀ [8,฀27] . By฀1927,฀more฀than฀50฀of฀the฀tobacco฀users฀in฀the฀USA฀were฀already฀smoking฀ciga- rettes฀97,000฀million,฀rising฀to฀106,000฀million฀in฀the฀following฀year,฀Table฀ 1.1 ;฀even฀ then฀such฀consumption฀was฀associated฀with฀illness฀on฀a฀fairly฀large฀scale.฀Statistics฀on฀the฀ incidence฀of฀lung฀cancer฀were฀collected฀in฀Great฀Britain฀as฀early฀as฀1920.฀At฀that฀time฀it฀ was฀still฀unclear฀whether฀a฀third฀genetic฀factor฀was฀involved฀alongside฀smoking฀and฀lung฀ cancer.฀Despite฀evidence฀to฀the฀contrary,฀the฀tobacco฀industry฀continued฀to฀dispute฀this฀fact฀ into฀the฀1950s฀ [28] .฀The฀tobacco฀industry฀did฀not฀shy฀away฀from฀advertising฀its฀products฀ even฀when฀diseases฀caused฀by฀cigarettes฀were฀reported฀Fig.฀ 1.6 .

1.6 Women Won Over by the Cigarette

In฀the฀nineteenth฀century,฀smoking฀was฀the฀exclusive฀privilege฀of฀men.฀Even฀today,฀cigar฀and฀ pipe฀smoking฀are฀still฀considered฀to฀be฀a฀predominantly฀male฀attribute.฀Before฀the฀1920s,฀ciga- rette฀was฀not฀considered฀to฀be฀the฀dominant฀tobacco฀product.฀The฀image฀it฀projected฀was฀not฀