Toxic Substances and Inducers
7.6.2 Kidney Cancer
AccordingtoananalysisoftheincidenceofkidneycancerinCentralEurope,thehighest observedratewasrecordedintheformerCzechoslovakiawith8.37cases100,000popula- tion1990–1994:thisigureisexpectedtoriseto10.38cases100,000fortheperiod2000– 2004.Alcoholandcigaretteconsumptionarecitedasthemostimportantdeterminingfactors [383] .Inastudyof133histologicallyconirmedcasesofkidneycancer,multivariateanaly- sisrevealedthatsmokinghabitsaccountedfor26ofcases,whilegeneticfactorsaccounted foronly3 [384] . Concurrent presence of b-carotene deiciency was associated with an additional increaseintheriskofkidneycancer.Adolescentswhostarttosmokebeforetheageof18 doubletheirriskofdevelopingcanceroftherenalpelvis,whereasrenalcellcancerwas observedonlyafter25yearsofsmoking [385] .Accordingtoonerecentstudy,cigarette smokingwasfoundtoincreasetheriskofkidneycanceramongmalesOR=1.8;CI: 1.3–2.7morethanamongfemalesOR=1.2;CI:0.8–1.8 [386] .Acaseofpapillary kidneycancerhasbeenreportedinayoungmanwhohadsmokedmarijuanaheavilyfor years [387] .7.6.3 Bladder Cancer
Thecausesofbladdercanceraretobesoughtingeneticchangesinvariouskeyenzymessee Sects.7.6.1and7.6.4andintherenalexcretionofthecombustionproductsofsmoking. Chromosome9alterationshavebeendescribedinsmoking-relatedbladdercancer [388] . Halfofallkidneyandbladdercancersinmenarerelatedtosmoking.AccordingtoanItalian study,46ofbladdercancersareattributabletosmoking [389] .Inmalesmokers,theriskof bladdercanceris3–7timeshigherthaninnon-smokers [390–392] .Amongwomen37of bladdercancersand12ofkidneycancersaresmoking-related [393,394] ,andoddsratios of2.4CI:1.5–4.0and2.8CI:1.2–6.3havebeenreported [391] .Frequentcoffeeconsump- tionhasbeencitedasanadditionalriskfactorforbladdercancer.Twentyyearsago,acase– controlstudydetectedanincreasedsmoking-relatedriskforbladdercancerinmenRR=4.8; CI:2.4–9.3andwomen1.7;CI:1.0–2.7,withtheextentofsmokinginluencingtheriskof cancer [395,396] .Inparticular,heavycigarettesmokers³2pack-yearswhoinhaleddeeply increasedtheirrisksevenfoldwhereascigarsmokinghadnoeffectonthedevelopmentof bladdercancer [397] .Transitionalcellcarcinomasalsooccurredprimarilyinsmokers,with militarypersonnelbeingatgreaterriskthanotherpopulationgroups [398] .Theresultsof treatmentforbladdercanceralsodependonsmokingcessation [399] .Differencesintermsof increasedriskhavebeenshownbetweensmokersofcigarettesOR=3.5;CI:2.9–4.2,pipes OR=1.9;CI:1.2–3.1andcigarsOR=2.3;CI:1.6–3.5,butthedurationofcigarorciga- rette smoking had no effect on the incidence of carcinoma [400] . Non-transitional-cell carcinomasarereportedprincipallyinsmokersOR=3.61;CI:2.08–6.28,withextremely heavysmokersbeingatevengreaterriskOR=7.01;CI:3.60–13.66 [401] .7.6.4 Cancer of the Cervix
A high proportion of cervical cancers and of cases of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia stageIIImayberegardedassmoking-related [402–408] ,asshownbythestudiesfrom countriesallovertheworld.Geneticpolymorphismatdetoxifyingenzymelocisuchas CYP2D6 and glutathione S-transferase GSTM1 may determine susceptibility to these cancers [408,409] .Smokingisanindependentriskfactor [410] whichalsocorrelateswith pack-yearsofsmoking,causingtherisktoincreasebyasmuchas12-fold [411] .Inone case–controlstudyconductedinarelativelylargepopulationinUtahUSA,theriskofcer- vicalcancerwasincreaseddependingonpack-yearsofsmokingever-smokersvs.smok- ers5pack-years:OR=2.21;CI:1.44–3.39vs.3.42;CI:2.10–5.57 [412] .One-thirdofall 1,993newlydiagnosedcasesofcervicalcancerwereattributabletosmoking [412,413] , andinthesetumourstoothebreakdownproductsofsmokeexcretedviathecervicalepithe- liumactasinducersofcarcinogenesis [413,414] .Nicotineandcotininehavebeendetected inthecervicalmucustheirlevelscorrelatewiththenumberofcigarettessmoked [415] , andpassivesmokersarealsoaffected.Inparticular,onecarcinogenictobacco-speciicnit- rosamine,NNKseeSect.7.6.1,hasbeendetectedinthecervicalmucusofcurrentsmok- ersinconcentrationsthatwerethreetimeshigherthanthoseinnon-smokers [416] .NNKParts
» Tobacco Plants and Their Origin Use of Tobacco for Religious Purposes
» The Appropriation of Tobacco by Europeans
» Development of the Cigarette
» Objections to Smoking on Health Grounds
» Women Won Over by the Cigarette
» The Medical Use of Tobacco in the Nineteenth Century
» Tobacco Research in the Twentieth Century
» Tobacco Consumption in the Twentieth Century
» Cigarette Smoking in the USA Since 1965
» Cigarette-Related Mortality in Different Countries
» Smokers and Other Risk Factors
» Smoking Behaviour and Educational Level in the EU
» Non-Disclosure of Findings by the Tobacco Industry
» The Cigarette as a Vehicle for Nicotine Release
» Modifications of Nicotine Release
» Maintaining Nicotine Dependence Nicotine and Dependence
» Marketing of Cigarettes with a “Reduced” Health Risk
» Compensatory Behaviour by Smokers
» Optimising Nicotine Release Nicotine and Dependence
» Importance of Absorption Rate
» Ammonium and pH Manipulation
» Cigarettes with Reduced Tar Yield
» Agonists and Antagonists of the nAChR and its Subtypes
» Effects of Nicotine on Receptors in Different Organs
» Metabolic and Hormonal Effects of Nicotine
» Central Nervous System Effects of Nicotine
» Types of Dependence Nicotine Dependence
» Molecular Biological Aspects of Dependence
» Genetic Aspects Nicotine Dependence
» Withdrawal Symptoms Nicotine Dependence
» Immunological Reactions Caused by Cigarette Smoking
» Association Between Smoking and Lung Cancer
» Tobacco-Specific Carcinogens Genetic Factors That Increase the Risk for Bronchial Carcinoma
» The Cytochrome P450 and GST System and Carcinogenesis
» Peptide Receptors, Genetic Factors That Increase the Risk for Bronchial Carcinoma
» Exogenous Factors and Lung Cancer
» Pathophysiology of COPD Cigarette Smoking and COPD
» Genetic Factors Important Risk Factors for COPD
» Occupational and Environmental Factors
» Caveats Concerning the Informative Value of Studies
» Cigarette Smoking and Bronchial Asthma in Adults
» Bronchial Asthma in Children
» Other Lung Diseases Influenced by Cigarette Smoking
» Coronary Artery Disease and Myocardial Infarction
» Changes in Endothelial Function and Microcirculation
» Microcirculation and O Systemic Vascular Changes
» Arteriosclerotic and Inflammatory Vascular Reactions
» Genetic Factors Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis
» Nicotine and Ischaemic Heart Disease
» Cognitive Impairment Central Nervous System
» Influence on Cognitive Performance
» Intellectual Impairment in Childhood
» Smoker Personality Profiles and Genetic Inheritance of Smoking
» Peculiarities of the Smoker’s Personality
» Reasons for Increased Cigarette Consumption
» Comorbidity Between Depression and Smoking
» Extent of Cigarette Consumption
» Effects of Smoking in Forms of Dementia
» Smoking and Parkinson’s Disease
» Diabetic Retinopathy Ocular Diseases
» Graves’ Ophthalmopathy Ocular Diseases
» Macular Degeneration Ocular Diseases
» Ocular Tumours Ocular Diseases
» Retinal Detachment Ocular Diseases
» Lipid and Cholesterol Metabolism
» Insulin Resistance Diabetic Nephropathy
» Oesophageal Cancer Gastrointestinal Tract
» Gastrointestinal Ulcers Gastrointestinal Tract
» Cancers of the Gastrointestinal Tract
» Pancreatic Cancer Gastrointestinal Tract
» Toxic Substances and Inducers
» Kidney Cancer Urinary Tract Diseases
» Bladder Cancer Urinary Tract Diseases
» Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostatic Cancer
» Fertility Disorders Urinary Tract Diseases
» Vitamin D and Oestrogen Metabolism
» Osteoporosis Disorders of Mineral Metabolism and Bone
» Hip Fractures Disorders of Mineral Metabolism and Bone
» Skin Changes Skin and Mucosa
» Skin Tumours Skin and Mucosa
» Breast Cancer Skin and Mucosa
» Effects of Smoking on the Placenta
» Malformations Possibly Caused by Smoking
» Smoking and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome SIDS
» Effects of Nicotine on the Foetus
» Medical Care Costs Attributable to Smoking During Pregnancy
» ETS in the Workplace and at Home
» Fibrinogen Cholesterol Endothelium and Platelets
» Markers of Inflammation Changes at the Molecular and Cellular Level
» Passive Smoking During and After Pregnancy
» Coronary Heart Disease Cardiovascular Disease
» Stroke and Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
» Respiratory Tract in Children and Teenagers
» Bronchial Carcinoma Respiratory Tract
» Indications and Diagnostic Considerations
» Self-Help Interventions by the Smoker
» Physician Advice for Smoking Cessation
» Group Behaviour Therapy Programmes
» Mass Media Communication Strategies
» E-Learning, Email and Internet for Smoking Cessation
» Evaluation of Nicotine Products
» Nicotine Chewing Gum Nicotine
» Nicotine Sublingual Tablet Nicotine Nasal Spray
» Treatment and Dosage Nicotine
» Nicotine Chewing Gum Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Patch Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Nasal Spray Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Inhaler Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Sublingual Tablet Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Lozenge Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Drug Interactions During Smoking Cessation
» Contraindications for the Use of Nicotine Products
» Nicotine Formulations as OTC Products
» Contraindications and Drug Interactions
» Tranquillisers and Buspirone Other Pharmacotherapies
» Various Antidepressants Other Pharmacotherapies
» Opioid Antagonists Other Pharmacotherapies
» Silver Acetate Other Pharmacotherapies
» Therapeutic Monitoring in Smoking Cessation
» Ischaemic Heart Disease Special Therapeutic Situations
» Pregnancy Special Therapeutic Situations
» Weight Gain Special Therapeutic Situations
» Alcohol Consumption Special Therapeutic Situations
» Organic Depression Organic Depression and Schizophrenia
» Schizophrenic Patients Organic Depression and Schizophrenia
» Interactions Between Cigarette Smoking and Administration of Psychopharmaceuticals
» Pre-operative Smoking Cessation Special Therapeutic Situations
» Social Influence Inoculation Strategy
» Life Skills Strategy Prevention Programmes for Schools
» Class 2000 Health Promotion Programme
» Trier University Health Programme Long-Term Studies
» Role of Teachers in Primary Prevention
» Prevention by Restricting Sales of Tobacco Products to Minors
» Role of the Mass Media in Sales of Tobacco Products to Adolescents
» Role of Government and Community in Primary Prevention
» Effect of Tobacco Industry Advertising Messages
» Tobacco Advertising and Adolescent Smoking Initiation
» Advertising with “Light” Cigarettes
» Smoking Bans in Public Buildings and Public Spaces
» Tobacco Industry, Governmental and Non-governmental Organisations
» Politicians and Their Attitude to Smoking
» Scientists and the Tobacco Industry
» Governmental Control of Toxic Tobacco Constituents
» Bans on Advertising in Various Countries
» Tobacco Industry: Playing Down the Risks of Smoking and Passive Smoking
» Smoking and Non-smoking: Weighing the Benefits
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