Diabetic Retinopathy Ocular Diseases
7.2.2 Cataract and Lens Opacity
The 86 rubidiumefluxtechniquerubidiumisamimicofpotassiumhasbeenusedinani- malexperimentstostudytheinluenceoftobaccosmokeonculturedratlenses,whichare metabolicallyactiveandhavefunctionaldefencesystems.Itwasfoundthatthesmoke particlesareactivelytransportedintothelensandarenotabsorbedasaresultofincreased permeability; histologically, the lenses also exhibited morphological changes such as hyperplasia,hypertrophyandmulti-layeringofepithelialcells [154] .Inaddition,theheavy metalscopper,leadandcadmiuminhaledfromcigarettesmokeaccumulateinthelensand arepossiblyinvolvedincataractdevelopment [155] .Moreover,theinhalednitrousgases andNO,whichaccumulateintheanteriorchamberduringocularinlammation,leadto changesina-crystallinindicativeofoxidativedamagewhichshowupasincreasedluo- rescence l -kynureninemaybeanintermediatecausativeagent [156] . Aclinicalstudyin838watermeninvestigatedtheoccurrenceofnuclearorcorticallens opacities,andadose-dependentassociationwasfoundinsmokersbetweennuclearopacity andpack-yearsofsmoking [157] ,aindingthathasbeenconirmedinotherstudies [149, 158–160] .Theselensopacitiesregressedpartiallyonsmokingcessation [157] .A10-year prospectivestudyin17,824physicians,inwhom557incidentcataractswereconirmed during5yearsoffollow-up,demonstratedthattheriskofcataractinheavysmokers20 cigarettesdaywasdoubledcomparedwithnever-smokersRR=2.16;CI:1.46–3.20, withnuclearscleroticchangesbeingobservedinparticularRR=2.24;CI:1.47–3.41 [161] .PastsmokershadanelevatedriskofposteriorsubcapsularcataractRR=1.44, whereas current smokers of 20 cigarettesday did not have an increased cataract risk [161] .TheassociationbetweenpipesmokingandnuclearcataractOR=3.1;CI:1.5–8.2 wasstrongerthantheassociationwithcigarettesmoking [162] . Additional moderate alcohol intake £4 drinksday lowered cataract prevalence, whereasheavyalcoholconsumptionpotentiatedtheeffectsofcigarettesmokingORcom- paredwithnon-drinkers=3.9;CI:0.9–16.6 [162,163] .Theincidenceofcataractsin diabeticpatientswasnotsigniicantlyaffectedbyadditionalsmoking [164] .Cataractoper- ationslensnucleusextractioninfemalesmokerswereassociatedwithariskofmore frequentcomplications [165] .7.2.3 Graves’ Ophthalmopathy
Graves’ophthalmopathy,aconditioncommonlyencounteredinhyperthyroidism,iscriti- callyinluencedbythereleaseofinterleukin-1IL-1 [166] ,andsmokingisknownto increasetheproductionofIL-1,andofIFN-gandTNF-a [166,167] . TheincreasedriskforGraves’ophthalmopathyassociatedwithcigarettesmokingis2.4 CI:1.12–5.18,andEuropeanshaveasubstantiallygreaterriskofdevelopingthiscompli- cationthanhaveAsians [168] .TheseresultsareconirmedbyastudyconductedinTaiwan [169] .Cigarettesmokingalsoencouragestheprogressionofthedisease,andtheeffective- nessofradiotherapyandofglucocorticoidsisreduced [170] .7.2.4 Macular Degeneration
Age-relatedmaculardegenerationcausesblindnessinthousandsofpatients,particularlyin theUSA,andthemedicaltreatmentoptionsarelimitedatbest [171] . Itisthereforeunderstandablethatseveralstudieshaveattemptedtoestablishanasso- ciationwithcigarettesmoking.Onemeta-analysisassesseddatafromthreestudiescon- ducted in 14,752 patients with age-related macular degeneration. Since the population originatedfromthreecontinents,thereweregeographicaldifferencesbutnogenderdiffer- encesindiseaseprevalence [172] .Thisstudyalsoclearlyshowedtheharmfuleffectsof smokingintermsofthedevelopmentofmaculardegeneration [172] . Theriskformaculardegenerationhasbeenshowntobeassociatedwithcigarettesmok- ing and raised serum cholesterol levels [173] . Compared with ex-smokers or never- smokers, the relative odds for age-related macular degeneration in females who were currentsmokershasbeenreportedas2.5095CI:1.01–6.20;formalesitwas3.29 95CI:1.03–10.50.Inbothcases,theexudativeformpredominated [174] .Macular pigmentdensityinsmokerswassubstantiallyreducedcomparedwiththatinnon-smokers 0.16vs.0.34;p0.0001;aninversecorrelationwasidentiiedbetweenmacularpigment densityandpack-yearsofsmoking [175] .Investigationsin6,174persons,55yearsand older,havealsoshownthat,comparedwithnon-smokers,theriskforage-relatedmacular degenerationisincreased6.6-foldincurrentsmokers10pack-yearsofsmokingand 3.2-fold in ex-smokers. Arteriosclerotic changes did not alter the association between smokingandmaculardegeneration [176] .Amongwomenwhocurrentlysmokedtherela- tiveriskformaculardegenerationwas2.4comparedwithwomenwhohadneversmoked [177] ,althoughtheassociationwaslessstrongthaninmen [178] .Itshouldbeemphasised thattheriskformaculardegenerationincreasesdramaticallyaboveaconsumptionof20 cigarettesday [179] and that neovascularisation has been detected in addition [180] .Parts
» Tobacco Plants and Their Origin Use of Tobacco for Religious Purposes
» The Appropriation of Tobacco by Europeans
» Development of the Cigarette
» Objections to Smoking on Health Grounds
» Women Won Over by the Cigarette
» The Medical Use of Tobacco in the Nineteenth Century
» Tobacco Research in the Twentieth Century
» Tobacco Consumption in the Twentieth Century
» Cigarette Smoking in the USA Since 1965
» Cigarette-Related Mortality in Different Countries
» Smokers and Other Risk Factors
» Smoking Behaviour and Educational Level in the EU
» Non-Disclosure of Findings by the Tobacco Industry
» The Cigarette as a Vehicle for Nicotine Release
» Modifications of Nicotine Release
» Maintaining Nicotine Dependence Nicotine and Dependence
» Marketing of Cigarettes with a “Reduced” Health Risk
» Compensatory Behaviour by Smokers
» Optimising Nicotine Release Nicotine and Dependence
» Importance of Absorption Rate
» Ammonium and pH Manipulation
» Cigarettes with Reduced Tar Yield
» Agonists and Antagonists of the nAChR and its Subtypes
» Effects of Nicotine on Receptors in Different Organs
» Metabolic and Hormonal Effects of Nicotine
» Central Nervous System Effects of Nicotine
» Types of Dependence Nicotine Dependence
» Molecular Biological Aspects of Dependence
» Genetic Aspects Nicotine Dependence
» Withdrawal Symptoms Nicotine Dependence
» Immunological Reactions Caused by Cigarette Smoking
» Association Between Smoking and Lung Cancer
» Tobacco-Specific Carcinogens Genetic Factors That Increase the Risk for Bronchial Carcinoma
» The Cytochrome P450 and GST System and Carcinogenesis
» Peptide Receptors, Genetic Factors That Increase the Risk for Bronchial Carcinoma
» Exogenous Factors and Lung Cancer
» Pathophysiology of COPD Cigarette Smoking and COPD
» Genetic Factors Important Risk Factors for COPD
» Occupational and Environmental Factors
» Caveats Concerning the Informative Value of Studies
» Cigarette Smoking and Bronchial Asthma in Adults
» Bronchial Asthma in Children
» Other Lung Diseases Influenced by Cigarette Smoking
» Coronary Artery Disease and Myocardial Infarction
» Changes in Endothelial Function and Microcirculation
» Microcirculation and O Systemic Vascular Changes
» Arteriosclerotic and Inflammatory Vascular Reactions
» Genetic Factors Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis
» Nicotine and Ischaemic Heart Disease
» Cognitive Impairment Central Nervous System
» Influence on Cognitive Performance
» Intellectual Impairment in Childhood
» Smoker Personality Profiles and Genetic Inheritance of Smoking
» Peculiarities of the Smoker’s Personality
» Reasons for Increased Cigarette Consumption
» Comorbidity Between Depression and Smoking
» Extent of Cigarette Consumption
» Effects of Smoking in Forms of Dementia
» Smoking and Parkinson’s Disease
» Diabetic Retinopathy Ocular Diseases
» Graves’ Ophthalmopathy Ocular Diseases
» Macular Degeneration Ocular Diseases
» Ocular Tumours Ocular Diseases
» Retinal Detachment Ocular Diseases
» Lipid and Cholesterol Metabolism
» Insulin Resistance Diabetic Nephropathy
» Oesophageal Cancer Gastrointestinal Tract
» Gastrointestinal Ulcers Gastrointestinal Tract
» Cancers of the Gastrointestinal Tract
» Pancreatic Cancer Gastrointestinal Tract
» Toxic Substances and Inducers
» Kidney Cancer Urinary Tract Diseases
» Bladder Cancer Urinary Tract Diseases
» Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostatic Cancer
» Fertility Disorders Urinary Tract Diseases
» Vitamin D and Oestrogen Metabolism
» Osteoporosis Disorders of Mineral Metabolism and Bone
» Hip Fractures Disorders of Mineral Metabolism and Bone
» Skin Changes Skin and Mucosa
» Skin Tumours Skin and Mucosa
» Breast Cancer Skin and Mucosa
» Effects of Smoking on the Placenta
» Malformations Possibly Caused by Smoking
» Smoking and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome SIDS
» Effects of Nicotine on the Foetus
» Medical Care Costs Attributable to Smoking During Pregnancy
» ETS in the Workplace and at Home
» Fibrinogen Cholesterol Endothelium and Platelets
» Markers of Inflammation Changes at the Molecular and Cellular Level
» Passive Smoking During and After Pregnancy
» Coronary Heart Disease Cardiovascular Disease
» Stroke and Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
» Respiratory Tract in Children and Teenagers
» Bronchial Carcinoma Respiratory Tract
» Indications and Diagnostic Considerations
» Self-Help Interventions by the Smoker
» Physician Advice for Smoking Cessation
» Group Behaviour Therapy Programmes
» Mass Media Communication Strategies
» E-Learning, Email and Internet for Smoking Cessation
» Evaluation of Nicotine Products
» Nicotine Chewing Gum Nicotine
» Nicotine Sublingual Tablet Nicotine Nasal Spray
» Treatment and Dosage Nicotine
» Nicotine Chewing Gum Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Patch Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Nasal Spray Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Inhaler Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Sublingual Tablet Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Nicotine Lozenge Adverse Events Associated with NRT
» Drug Interactions During Smoking Cessation
» Contraindications for the Use of Nicotine Products
» Nicotine Formulations as OTC Products
» Contraindications and Drug Interactions
» Tranquillisers and Buspirone Other Pharmacotherapies
» Various Antidepressants Other Pharmacotherapies
» Opioid Antagonists Other Pharmacotherapies
» Silver Acetate Other Pharmacotherapies
» Therapeutic Monitoring in Smoking Cessation
» Ischaemic Heart Disease Special Therapeutic Situations
» Pregnancy Special Therapeutic Situations
» Weight Gain Special Therapeutic Situations
» Alcohol Consumption Special Therapeutic Situations
» Organic Depression Organic Depression and Schizophrenia
» Schizophrenic Patients Organic Depression and Schizophrenia
» Interactions Between Cigarette Smoking and Administration of Psychopharmaceuticals
» Pre-operative Smoking Cessation Special Therapeutic Situations
» Social Influence Inoculation Strategy
» Life Skills Strategy Prevention Programmes for Schools
» Class 2000 Health Promotion Programme
» Trier University Health Programme Long-Term Studies
» Role of Teachers in Primary Prevention
» Prevention by Restricting Sales of Tobacco Products to Minors
» Role of the Mass Media in Sales of Tobacco Products to Adolescents
» Role of Government and Community in Primary Prevention
» Effect of Tobacco Industry Advertising Messages
» Tobacco Advertising and Adolescent Smoking Initiation
» Advertising with “Light” Cigarettes
» Smoking Bans in Public Buildings and Public Spaces
» Tobacco Industry, Governmental and Non-governmental Organisations
» Politicians and Their Attitude to Smoking
» Scientists and the Tobacco Industry
» Governmental Control of Toxic Tobacco Constituents
» Bans on Advertising in Various Countries
» Tobacco Industry: Playing Down the Risks of Smoking and Passive Smoking
» Smoking and Non-smoking: Weighing the Benefits
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