KARAKTERISTIK KONSUMEN Communication Network in Phase II

254 255 Apakah Kinerja dan Pengungkapan Lingkungan Berpengaruh terhadap Kinerja Ekonomi Perusahaan? Analisis pada Perusahaan Agroindustry yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia Are Environmental Performance and Disclosure Influence Company’s Economic Performance? Analysis on Agroindustry Companies Listed in Indonesian Stock Exchange Arisha Nursyamti Pramidyar 1 , Dika Supyandi 1 1 Prodi Agribisnis Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung A B S T R A K Kata Kunci: Environmental performance Environmental disclosure E conomic performance Socio Economic Accounting Regresi data panel Perusahaan dengan tingkat resiko lingkungan yang tinggi di Indonesia adalah perusahaan yang bergerak di bidang pengusahaan hutan pemegang HPHHPHTI, perkebunan dan pertambangan umum yang bergelut secara langsung dengan lingkungan di mana bahan baku produksi diambil langsung dari alam. Perilaku perusahaan terhadap lingkungan ini dikontrol Socio Economic Accounting SEA untuk mengatasi dampak external diseconomy atau social cost yang ditimbulkan perusahaan. Bentuk pertanggungjawaban akuntansi ini dilihat dari pengungkapan, kinerja lingkungan dan economic perusahaan. Tujuan kajian ini adalah menguji pengaruh antara economic performance terhadap environmental disclosure dan environmental performance. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah perusahaan agroindustri yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia serta mengikuti PROPER selama periode 2010-2014. Pengolahan data menggunakan analisis regresi data panel. Hasil kajian menunjukkan environmental performance dan environmental disclosure tidak berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance perusahaan agroindustri yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia. ABSTRACT Keywords: Environmental performance Environmental disclosure E conomic performance Socio Economic Accounting Regression of data panel Companies with high levels of environmental destruction risk in Indonesia are forestry holders of HPHHPHTI, plantation and mining companies that deals with the environment directly where the resource is taken from the nature. The companies’ behavior on environment is controlled by Socio Economic Accounting SEA to overcome the impact of external diseconomy or social cost inflicted by company. The accountancy responsibility is approached by disclosure, environmental performance and economic performance of the companies. The purpose of the research is to examine the impact of environmental disclosure and environmental performance to economic performance. Population in this research is agroindustry companies which are listed in the Indonesia stock exchange and follow the PROPER during the period of 2010-2014. The processing of data is using data regression panel analysis. The result of this research indicates that environmental performance and environmental disclosure are not giving positive significant effect on economic performance in agroindustry companies which are listed in the Indonesia stock exchange. Korespondensi Penulis Alamat e-mail: 1 sa_pramidyaryahoo.com, 2 dika_supyandiyahoo.com 256 PENDAHULUAN Dalam era industrialisasi ini, perusahaan dianggap sebagai lembaga yang dapat memberikan banyak keuntungan bagi masyarakat, di mana menurut pendekatan teori akuntansi tradisional yang dijelaskan oleh Henny dan Murtanto dalam Miranti, 2009 perusahaan harus memaksimalkan labanya agar dapat memberikan sumbangan yang maksimum kepada masyarakat. Keuntungan yang diberikan perusahaan bagi masyarakat antara lain adalah perusahaan menyediakan lapangan kerja, perusahaan menyediakan barang yang dibutuhkan masyarakat untuk dikonsumsi, perusahaan membayar pajak pada pemerintah serta memberikan sumbangan. Hal tersebut yang membuat perusahaan mendapatkan kekuatan untuk beroperasi dan menggunakan sumber daya yang dibutuhkan. Dalam perannya meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi, perusahaan perlu memperhatikan kinerja ekonominya. Perusahaan membutuhkan perencanaan yang akurat dan realistis yang sesuai dengan kondisi perusahaan, sehingga dari perencanaan tersebut dapat diprediksi kinerja ekonominya. Kinerja ekonomi perusahaan merupakan kinerja perusahaan secara relatif berubah-berubah dari tahun ke tahun dalam suatu kelompok industri perusahaan yang bergerak dalam bidang yang sama yang ditandai dengan besarnya return tahunan perusahaan tersebut Almilia dan Wijayanto, 2007. Walhi Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia menyebutkan bahwa aktor perusak lingungan hidup yang utama di Indonesia adalah perusahaan dan pemerintah. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari Gambar 1. yang memperlihatkan besarnya persentase peran aktor tersebut dalam merusak lingkungan. Gambar 1. Diagram Aktor Perusak Pencemar Lingkungan Hidup Tahun 2013 sumber: Saturi, 2014 Dari gambar tersebut tampak perusahaan ikut andil 31 dalam merusak lingkungan, diikuti dengan perusahaan dan pemerintah yang berperan 23 dalam merusakmencemari lingkungan. Dari sini terlihat bahwa hubungan perusahaan dengan lingkungannya bersifat non-reciprocal yang artinya transaksi itu tidak menimbulkan prestasi timbal-balik dari pihak yang berhubungan. Indonesia sebagai negara kepulauan terbesar di dunia yang memiliki segala kekayaan alam dan sumber daya manusia yang dimiliki merupakan negara yang berpotensi besar dan sangat penting di kawasan Asia pada khususnya dan dunia pada umumnya. Data Kementerian Kehutanan menyebutkan dari sekitar 130 juta hektar hutan yang 6 Anonim 2014 dalam http:www.wwf.or.id tersisa di Indonesia, 42 juta hektar diantaranya sudah habis ditebang. 6 Karena besarnya dampak buruk yang disumbangkan perusahaan kepada masyarakat beserta lingkungan hidup di sekitarnya, maka perlu adanya kontrol agar external diseconomy atau social cost yang ditimbulkannya tidak semakin besar. Kontrol tersebut berupa ilmu akuntansi yang mencatat, mengukur, melaporkan segala bentuk externalities yang dikenal dengan Socio Economic Accounting SEA Harahap, 2002 dengan tiga aspek persoalan penting yaitu: keberlanjutan aspek ekonomi, lingkungan dan kinerja sosial Ja’far dan Arifah, 2006 dalam Handayani, 2010. Penelitian empiris mengenai hubungan antara environmental performance, economic 257 performance dan environmental disclosure secara umum telah mempertimbangkan kekuatan hubungan diantara variabel-variabel tersebut. Penelitian Bragdon dan Marlin 1972, Spicer 1978, Freedman dan Jaggi 1992 dan Ignatius Bondan Suratno, Darsono, Siti Mutmainah 2006 dalam Almilia dan Wijayanto 2007 menemukan hubungan positif signifikan antara e conomic performance dengan e nvironmental performance . Penelitian Al Tuwaijri, SA., Christensen, T.E. dan Hughes II, K.E. 2004 meneliti tentang hubungan antara e nvironmental performance, environmental disclosure dan economic performance . Hasil penelitiannya menunjukkan bahwa e nvironmental performance, environmental disclosure dan economic performance secara statistik signifikan, namun hanya hubungan economic performance dengan e nvironmental performance yang mempunyai interelasi potensial. Anggraini 2008 dalam Handayani 2010 meneliti tentang environmental disclosure , environmental performance dan return saham yang mewakili economic performance . Hasil penelitiannya menunjuk-kan bahwa environmental performance tidak berpengaruh signifikan terhadap environmental disclosure , tetapi berpengaruh signifikan terhadap return saham . Sedangkan environmental disclosure mempunyai pengaruh positif signifikan terhadap return saham. Hasil penelitian-penelitian sebelumnya mengenai hubungan environmental disclosure, environmental performance dan economic performance yang masih kontradiktif dan menunjukkan hasil yang berbeda-beda menarik untuk dilakukan kajian kembali khususnya mengenai environmental disclosure , e nvironmental performance dan economic performance . Tujuan dalam kajian ini adalah menguji pengaruh antara economic performance terhadap environmental disclosure dan environmental performance. KERANGKA TEORI KERANGKA KONSEP Dalam operasionalnya, perusahaan memiliki dampak secara positif dan negatif. Dampak positif dengan adanya perusahaan antara lain memberikan lapangan kerja, menyediakan barangjasa, pemasukan jasa dan memberikan sumbangan pada masyarakat. Selain adanya dampak positif tersebut, adanya perusahaan juga menyumbang dampak negatif yaitu menghasilkan limbah padat dan cair serta polusi air dan udara. Limbah padat dan cair ini hendaknya diolah terlebih dahulu sebelum dilepas ke lingkungan. Limbah padat dan cair yang tidak menjalani proses pengolahan penetralan akan membentuk lingkungan yang rusaktercemar. Hal ini membentuk hubungan non-reciprocal antara perusahaan dengan lingkungan yang maksudnya tidak terdapat hubungan timbal balik antara keduanya, hanya perusahaan yang membutuhkan lingkungan sedangkan lingkungan tidak membutuhkan perusahaan. Hubungan non-reciprocal ini kemudian dipelajari dengan teori Socio Economic Accounting SEA yang didalamnya membahas hubungan antara pengungkapan, kinerja lingkungan dan kinerja ekonomi perusahaan. Berdasarkan teori SEA inilah terbentuk dugaan bahwa terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan positif antara environmental performance dan environmental disclosure terhadap economic performance perusahaan. 258 Gambar 2. Kerangka konsep METODE PENELITIAN Objek dalam penelitian ini adalah environmental performance, environmental disclosure dan pengaruhnya terhadap economic performance pada perusahaan sektor Agroindustri yang terdaftar dalam Bursa Efek Indonesia dan mengikuti PROPER serta mengeluarkan laporan tahunannya pada tahun 2010-2014. Desain yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kuantitatif. Data dan informasi dalam penelitian ini berupa data sekunder dan data primer. Teknik pengambilan sampel dipilih dengan menggunakan teknik sensus dan diperoleh 16 perusahaan. Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah dengan studi pustaka. Rancangan analisis data menggunakan analisis deskriptif untuk menjelaskan karakteristik perusahaan dalam setiap variabel. Analisis regresi data panel dengan bantuan Eviews7 berguna untuk melihat dampak ekonomis yang tidak terpisahkan antar setiap individu dalam beberapa periode cross section dan time series . Dengan model regresi data panel: Y = α + it + it + e Keterangan: Y = Variabel dependen Economic Performance α = Konstanta = Variabel independen 1 Environmental Performance = Variabel independen 2 Environmental Disclosure b … = Koefisien regresi masing-masing variabel independen e = Error term t = Waktu i = Perusahaan Pemilihan model regresi data panel dilakukan untuk mendapatkan model yang tepat untuk penelitian ini. Model dengan pengaruh individu untuk penaksirannya dapat dilakukan melalui dua pendekatan, yaitu pendekatan fixed effect dan 259 random effect . Untuk memilih model tersebut dilakukan dengan uji Hausman. Pengujian uji Hausman dilakukan dengan hipotesis berikut: : Random Effect RE Model : Fixed Effect FE Model Terhadap analisis regresi data panel ini dilakukan pengujian asumsi klasik uji autokorelasi, multikolinieritas dan heteroskedastisitas. Selain itu, terdapat uji kelayakan model koefisien determinasi dan uji F dan Uji Hipotesis menggunakan uji t. Hipotesis: H1 : Environmental performance berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance H2 : Environmental disclosure berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance H3 : Environmental performance dan e nvironmental disclosure berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN Hasil pengolahan data statistik deskriptif, untuk environmental performance pada umumnya perusahaan sampel meraih peringkat biru dalam PROPER dan peringkat tertinggi diduduki oleh perusahaan dengan kode INRU yang meraih peringkat hijau selama 4 tahun berturut-turut dari 2010-2013. Environmental disclosure poin tertinggi 18 diperoleh perusahaan dengan kode UNSP dan poin pengungkapan terendah diperoleh perusahaan dengan kode TBLA. Hal yang paling banyak diungkapkan perusahaan dalam laporan tahunannya adalah mengenai inisiatif untuk mengurangi dampak buruk pada lingkungan akibat oleh produk dan jasa daftar ceklis GRI poin ke 26. Economic performance perusahaan dengan kode FASW memiliki nilai ROE -16,00 di tahun 2013 dan pada tahun yang sama, perusahaan dengan kode TIRT memiliki nilai ROE sebesar 78,4 yang merupakan ROE tertinggi di antara 16 perusahaan tersebut selama periode 2011-2014. Pemilihan Model Regresi Data Panel Nilai probabilitas Prob. cross-section random sebesar 0,5813 yang nilainya 0,05 sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa model RE lebih tepat dibandingkan dengan model FE untuk kajian ini. Hal ini sebenarnnya sudah ditunjukkan oleh karakter data panel yang memiliki jumlah waktu 2010-2014 lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan jumlah entitas 16 perusahaan yang oleh beberapa ahli ekonometrika disarankan menggunakan metode random effect . Uji Asumsi Klasik 1. Uji Autokorelasi Uji autokorelasi bertujuan untuk menguji apakah dalam suatu model regresi linear ada korelasi antara kesalahan pengganggu periode t dengan kesalahan pengganggu pada periode t-1 periode sebelumnya. Dilihat melalui nilai Durbin-Watson. Jika nilai Durbin-Watson DW terletak antara batas atas atau upper bound du dan 4-du, maka koefisien autokorelasi sama dengan nol, dengan kata lain tidak ada autokorelasi. Tabel 12. Data pengujian autokorelasi Nilai dU N=64 K=2 Nilai Durbin Watson 4-dU Keterangan 1,65 1,959 2,34 Tidak ada autokorelasi Berdasarkan tabel tersebut terlihat pada data penelitian ini tidak terjadi masalah autokorelasi.

2. Multikolinieritas

Uji multikolinearitas bertujuan untuk menguji apakah model regresi ditemukan adanya korelasi antara variabel independen. Untuk menguji masalah multikolinearitas dapat melihat matriks korelasi dari variabel bebas, jika terjadi koefisien korelasi lebih dari 0,80 maka terdapat multikolinearitas. Nilai koefisien korelasinya antar variabel independen dibawah 0,80 yaitu 0,0288. Dengan demikian data dalam penelitian ini tidak terjadi masalah multikolinearitas.

3. Heteroskedastisitas

Model RE sudah menggunakan Generalize Least Square GLS yang merupakan salah satu teknik penyembuhan regresi. Karena penelitian ini menggunakan metode Random Effect maka tidak perlu lagi di uji heteroskedastisitas. Uji Kelayakan Model 1. Uji F Pengujian secara simultan dilihat melalui nilai Uji F yang terdapat pada tabel berikut: Tabel 14. Hasil Uji Simultan Uji F F-statistic 1.342596 ProbF-statistic 0.268774 Berdasarkan Tabel 14. didapatkan nilai p- value alpha 0,05 yaitu 0,268 0,05 sehingga terima Ho yang dapat disimpulkan bahwa semua variabel independen secara simultan tidak berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen. 260

2. Koefisien Determinasi R-square

Koefisien determinasi digunakan untuk mengukur sejauh mana besar keragaman variabel tak bebas dapat dijelaskan oleh variabel bebas. Koefisisen determinasi dilihat dari nilai . Nilai yang didapatkan dari memodelkan regresi panel dengan pendekatan Random Effect Model REM pada penelitian ini adalah sebesar 0.042164. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa keragaman nilai Economic Performance hanya dapat dijelaskan oleh Environmental disclosure dan Environmental Performance sebesar 4,22, selebihnya dijelaskan oleh variabel lain yang tidak diteliti dalam penelitian ini. Uji Hipotesis Pengujian secara parsial dilihat dari nilai uji t yang terdapat pada tabel berikut: Tabel 15. Hasil uji t Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. ED -0.685289 0.523109 -1.310031 0.1951 EP -3.461120 3.551855 -0.974454 0.3337 C 30.72347 12.05030 2.549601 0.0133 Apabila nilai Prob. lebih kecil daripada 0,05, maka hipotesisnya diterima yang artinya variabel independen tersebut berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap variabel dependennya dan begitu sebaliknya. Variabel environmental disclosure mempunyai nilai koefisien -0,685 yang berarti variabel environmental disclosure berpengaruh negatif terhadap economic performance . Nilai sig t sebesar 0,1951 lebih besar dari α 5 sehingga hipotesis yang menyatakan environmental disclosure berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance , ditolak. Variabel environmental performance mempunyai nilai koefisien -4,664 yang berarti variabel environmental performance berpengaruh negatif terhadap economic performance . Nilai sig t sebesar 0,333 lebih besar dari α 5 sehingga hipotesis yang menyatakan environmental performance berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance , ditolak. PEMBAHASAN 1. Hipotesis 1 : Environmental performance berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance Berdasarkan hasil analisis dengan regresi data panel, menunjukkan bahwa variabel environmental performance tidak berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap variabel economic performance dari perusahaan agroindustri. Perilaku variabel environmental performance pada perusahaan agroindustri ternyata bukan salah satu faktor yang menentukan besarnya return on equity pada perusahaan. Sebagai contoh, perusahaan dengan kode TIRT pada tahun 2012 mendapatkan peringkat PROPER merah, namun ROE perusahaan pada tahun 2013 dapat tetap tinggi mencapai 78,4. Sebaliknya, perusahaan dengan kode KBRI mendapatkan peringkat biru pada PROPER tahun 2010 mempunyai economic performance ROE yang negatif di tahun 2011 yaitu -2.88. Hal tersebut diduga karena kondisi yang terjadi di Indonesia sebagai negara berkembang berbeda dengan yang terjadi di beberapa negara lain, terutama negara maju terkait perilaku investor di Indonesia. Hubungan yang tidak signifikan positif antara environmental performance dan economic performance disebabkan karena economic performance atau kinerja ekonomi suatu perusahaan tidak dilihat oleh investor dari kinerja di dalam lingkungan perusahaan environmental performance . Investor kurang memperhatikan apa yang dilakukan perusahaan, dan hanya memperhatikan bagaimana kondisi perusahaan di dalam pasar apakah menguntungkan atau tidak bila dilakukan investasi. Diduga bahwa para pelaku pasar modal di Indonesia dalam menentukan investasi pada perusahaan terbuka yang terdaftar di bursa efek melihatnya dari sejumlah aspek atau variabel sebagai contoh: rasio keuangan, ukuran perusahaan, dan kategori investasi apakah perusahaan merupakan penanaman modal dalam negeri PMDN ataukah penanaman modal asing PMA. Selain itu peneliti juga menduga hubungan yang tidak signifikan positif antara environmental performance dan economic performance ini dikarenakan Indonesia masih sebagai negara berkembang. Hasil penelitian serupa pada beberapa negara maju yaitu Canada, Jepang dan Eropa menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan positif seperti halnya penelitian Marcus Wagner dan Stefan Schaltegger 2004 yang menemukan hubungan yang positif antara environmental dengan economic performance pada perusahaan-perusahaan manufaktur di Eropa. Pada penelitiannya yang lain, Marcus mengungkapkan bahwa perusahaan yang memiliki strategi pengembangan lingkungan akan memiliki hubungan yang lebih positif dengan economic performance perusahaannya di bandingkan dengan perusahaan yang tidak memiliki strategi. Begitu pula hasil yang didapatkan oleh Jean-Francois Henry 2009 pada perusahaan-perusahaan di Canada, surveinya menunjukkan pengelolaan 261 lingkungan secara tidak langsung berpengaruh terhadap economic performance perusahaan. Hasil yang sama juga di peroleh pada perusahaan- perusahaan manufaktur di Jepang yaitu terdapat hubungan yang signifikan positif antara environmental performance dan economic performance perusahaan. Ketiga hasil penelitian di negara maju tersebut menjadi landasan atas dugaan bahwa perbedaan negara maju dan negara berkembang bila dilihat dari sisi ekonomi menyebabkan perilaku serta pola pikir investor di kedua negara tersebut akan berbeda.

2. Hipotesis 2 :

Environmental disclosure berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance Berdasarkan hasil analisis dengan regresi data panel, menunjukkan bahwa variabel environmental disclosure tidak berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap variabel economic performance dari perusahaan agroindustri. Pada beberapa perusahaan sampel, banyaknya pengungkapan tidak menjamin economic performance perusahaan menjadi baik. Sebagai contoh, ketika perusahaan dengan kode FASW mengungkapkan 16 item atau sekitar 53 dari item GRI yang harus diungkapkan, nilai ROE yang merupakan proksi dari economic performance perusahaan bernilai -16. Berbeda dengan perusahaan sampel lainnya yang item pengungkapannya di bawah 53 namun memiliki nilai ROE yang positif. Hal ini memperlihatkan banyak tidaknya pengungkapan tidak mempengaruhi nilai ROE perusahaan agroindustri perusahaan sampel. Selain itu, ekonomi suatu perusahaan tidak dilihat melalui pengungkapan yang dilakukan perusahaan tetapi kebanyakan hanya dilihat melalui keuntungan yang diperoleh perusahaan. Apa yang dilakukan perusahaan di dalam dan di luar perusahaan cenderung tidak terlalu diperhatikan oleh pelaku pasar dan investor. Apa saja yang diungkapkan perusahaan mengenai lingkungannya tidak mempengaruhi kinerja ekonomi suatu perusahaan secara positif karena pelaku pasarinvestor tidak melihat apa yang diungkapkan oleh perusahaan mengenai lingkungan perusahaannya, tetapi pasar hanya melihat return yang dihasilkan oleh perusahaan tiap tahunnya. Berbeda lagi dengan kecenderungan yang terjadi di Indonesia dimana para pelaku pasar di Indonesia cenderung hanya melihat dan merespon informasi yang terjadi di pasar sebatas informasi yang diberikan dan kurang melihat dari kinerja ekonomi dari suatu perusahaan Handayani, 2010. Sembiring 2006 dalam Wibisono 2011, menyatakan bahwa berdasarkan teori legitimasi, salah satu argumentasi dalam hubungan antara profitabilitas dan tingkat kinerja sosial adalah ketika perusahaan memiliki tingkat laba yang tinggi perusahaan menganggap tidak perlu melaporkan hal- hal yang dapat menganggu informasi tentang sukses keuangan perusahaan. Sebaliknya, pada saat tingkat profitabilitas rendah mereka berharap para pengguna laporan akan membaca good news kinerja perusahaan, misalnya dalam lingkup lingkungansosial dan dengan demikian investor akan tetap berinvestasi di perusahaan tersebut. Sehingga secara garis besar ketika perusahaan memperoleh profit yang tinggi economic performance perusahaan dalam keadaan baik maka pengungkapan yang dipaparkan perusahaan dalam annual report -nya tidak terlalu banyak, namun ketika perusahaan memperoleh profit yang rendah economic performance perusahaan tidak dalam keadaan baik perusahaan berusaha memaparkan hal- hal baik dalam annual report dengan tujuan menarikmempertahankan investor. Hal ini dapat menjadi alasan mengapa environmental disclosure tidak berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance perusahaan agroindustri yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia.

3. Hipotesis 3 :

Environmental performance dan environmental disclosure berpengaruh signifikan positif terhadap economic performance. Secara simultan, environmental performance dan environmental disclosure juga tidak signifikan mempengaruhi economic performance perusahaan agroindustri. Seperti yang telah dijelaskan dalam pembahasan hipotesis 1 dan hipotesis 2, economic performance atau kinerja ekonomi suatu perusahaan tidak dilihat oleh investor dari kinerja di dalam lingkungan perusahaan environmental performance . Investor biasanya akan melihat economic perusahaan dari return yang dihasilkan perusahaan, ukuran perusahaan, modal perusahaan dan posisi perusahaan. Investor juga tidak melihat kinerja ekonomi suatu perusahaan dari banyaknya disclosure yang dilakukan perusahaan dalam annual report perusahaan karena menurut teori legitimasi secara garis besar ketika perusahaan memperoleh profit yang tinggi economic performance perusahaan dalam keadaan baik maka pengungkapan yang dipaparkan perusahaan dalam annual report -nya tidak terlalu banyak. Hal ini mengakibatkan investor tidak data melihat kinerja ekonomi perusahaan hanya dari laporan tahunannya. 262 Dua hal tersebut menjadikan environmental performance dan environmental disclosure secara bersamaan tidak dapat mempengaruhi economic performance perusahaan secara siginifikan positif. Hasil penelitian pada hipotesis 3 ini, tidak mendukung temuan Al Tuwaijri, SA., Christensen, T.E. dan Hughes II, K.E. 2004 yang menemukan bahwa hubungan e nvironmental performance, environmental disclosure dan economic performance secara statistik signifikan. PENUTUP Berdasarkan hasil kajian yang dilakukan, disimpulkan sejumlah hal berikut: 1. Environmental performance tidak memiliki pengaruh secara signifikan positif terhadap economic performance perusahaan agroindustri. 2. Environmental disclosure tidak memiliki pengaruh secara signifikan positif terhadap economic performance dari perusahaan agroindustri. 3. Secara simultan, environmental performance dan environmental disclosure tidak memiliki pengaruh secara signifikan positif terhadap economic performance perusahaan agroindustri. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, saran yang dapat diberikan sebagai berikut : 1. Untuk penelitian selanjutnya penggunaan lingkup perusahaan yang lebih luas tidak hanya bidang agroindustri sangat disarankan agar hasil yang diperoleh lebih beragam. 2. Selain itu tahun penelitian hendaknya memiliki rentang tahun yang lebih lama agar diperoleh hasil yang mendetil mengenai kinerja perusahaan. Dalam menilai pengungkapan yang dilakukan perusahaan, dapat digunakan daftar checklist lain seperti yang bersumber dari Bapepam, Crismawati dan lainnya. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Almilia, Luciana Spica dan Dwi Wijayanto. 2007. Pengaruh Environmental Performance dan Environmental Disclosure terhadap Economic Performance. The 1 st Accounting Conference Faculty of Economics Universitas Indonesia. Al-Tuwaijri S.A., Christensen T.E. dan Hughes K.E. 2004. The Relations Among Environmental disclosure, Environmental performance and Economic performance: a simultaneous equations approach. Journal Accounting Organizations and Society , 294, 447-471. doi: 10.1016S0361- 36820300032-1 Anonim. 2014. Kehutanan. http:www.wwf.or.id. Di akses pada Tanggal 7 April 2015 Baltagi, Bagi 2005. Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, Third Edition. John Wiley Sons. Harahap, Sofyan Syafri. 2002. Teori Akuntansi. Edisi revisi. Jakarta Raja Grafindo Persada Hidemichi Fujii, dkk. 2012. Corporate Environmental and Economic Performance of Japanese Manufacturing Firms: Empirical Study for Sustainable Development . Business Strategy and the Environment Jorna l , 223, 187 –201. Jean-Francois Henry. 2009. Eco-control: The influence of management control systems on environmental and economic performance . Journal Accounting, Organization and Society, 35, 63-80. Lindrianasari. 2007. Hubungan Antara Kinerja Lingkungan Dan Kualitas Pengungkapan Lingkungan Dengan Kinerja Ekonomi Perusahaan Di Indonesia. Jurnal Akuntansi dan Auditing Indonesia , 112, Marcus Wagner and Stefan Schaltegger. 2004. The Effect of Corporate Environmental Strategy Choice and Environmental Performance on Competitiveness and Economic Performance: An Empirical Study of EU Manufacturing . European Management Journal, 225, 557 –572. Martin Freedman and Bikki Jaggi. 1988. An Analysis of the Association between Pollution Disclosure and Economic Performance . Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal , 12. Sugiyono. 2011. Metode Penelitian Kuntitatif, Kualitatif dan RD . Alfabeta: Bandung. Susi Sarumpaet. 2005. The Relationship Between Environmental Performance And Financial Performance of Indonesian Companies. Jurnal Akuntansi dan Keuangan , 72, 89- 98. Wagner, dkk. 2001. The Relationship between the Environmental and Economic Performance of Firms. An empirical analysis of the European paper industry. Journal Corporate Social - Responsibility and Environmental Management , 9, 133. 263 Identifikasi Faktor Pendukung Keberhasilan Transfer Teknologi Pada Industri Kecil Menengah Berbasis Potensi Lokal Dengan Pendekatan Makroergonomi Study Kasus : UKM Keripik Ubi Cilembu Desa Cileles Jatinangor Dan IKM Keripik di Desa Pagedangan Indramayu Success Factor Identification in Small Medium Enterprise SME’sTechnology Transfer Based on Local Resources Using Ergonomimacro Approache Devi Maulida Rahmah Departemen Teknik dan Manajemen Industri Pertaian, FakultasTeknologi Industri Pertanian Universitas Padjadjaran A B S T R A K Kata Kunci: Makroergonomi, perbaikan sistem kerja di UKM Industri Rumah Tangga merupakan sektor terdepan yang mampu mengembangkan perekonomian suatu daerah secara mandiri. Keberadaannya menjadi penting, karena mampu menyediakan lapangan pekerjaan bagi masyarakat sekitar. Upaya pengembangan industri rumah tangga tidak terlepas dari penerapan teknologi baik berupa penyediaan sarana prasarana, perbaikan metode penyimpanan barang, pengolahan, pengemasan hingga pemasaran. Oleh karenanya mengidentifikasi factor pendukung keberhasilan transfer teknologi pada industry rumah tangga sangat penting sebagai sebuah referensi bagi penerapan teknologi yang efektif pada industry rumah tangga. Karena pada kenyataannya tak jarang ditemuai proses transfer teknologi tidak bejalan secara efektif. Pendekatan makroergonomi merupakan sebuah pendekatan dalam melakukan perbaikan system kerja dengan mempertimbangkan semua aspek dalam proses perbaikannya. Sehingga pendekatan inpun relevan jika diterapkan pada perbaikan system kerja di IKM yang pada proses pengembangannya tak terlepas dari proses transfer teknologi. Faktor dalam makroergonomi adalah Pekerja, Mesin atau Teknologi, Lingkungn kerja, dan Organisasi kerja serta proses interaksi antara semua elemen di dalamnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk Memetakan faktor – faktor makroergonomi yang berpengaruh terhadap proses transfer teknologi pada industry kecil menengah berbasis potensi local. Penelitian dilakukan di UKM aneka keripik di desa Cileles Jatinangor dan IKM keripik di desa Pagedangan Indramayu. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa factor utama yang memperngaruhi keberhasilan proses transfer teknologi secara berurutan berdasarkan tingkat kepentingannya adalah: Organisasi kerja, SDM, Lingkungan kerja, serta Teknologi. Dengan pendekatan makroergonomi terlihat bahwa teknologi yang akan diterapkan bukan menjadi focus utama dalam pengembangan IKM. Justru kesiapan organisasi kerja SDM serta Lingkungan kerja patut menjadi factor yang dipertimbangkan ketika proses transfer teknologi akan dilakukan.. Korespondensi Penulis Alamat e-mail: d.m.rahmahgmail.com 264 PENDAHULUAN Sistem kerja merupakan kumpulan elemen dari sebuah rangkaian aktifitas pekerjaan yang saling berinteraksi untuk mencapai suatu tujuan pekerjaan yang ingin dicapai.Sistem kerja dalam sebuah aktifitas pekerjaan baik di industri dengan skala makro dan mikro diantaranya pekerja, mesin, lingkungan kerja, dan organisasi kerja. Dalam Perbaikansistemkerja pertimbangan ke empat elemen tersebut serta proses interaksinya tidak bisa dilepaskan dalam proses pengambilan kebijakan dalam perbaikan sistem kerja. Ada beberapa pendekatan yang dapat dilakukan dalam melakukan perbaikan sebuah sistem kerja, diantaranya pendekatan makroergonomi, mikro ergonomi, dan pendekatan rekayasa engineering. Pendekatan makroergonomi merupakan sebuah pendekatan dalam melakukan intervensi ergonomi dengan mempertimbangkan semua aspek dalam proses perbaikannya. Aspek tersebut diantaranya Pekerja, Mesin atau Teknologi, Lingkungn kerja, dan Organisasi kerja serta proses interaksi antara semua elemen di dalamnya. Aspek pekerja meliputi tingkat pendidikan pekerja, karakteristik pekerja dalam menerima masukan perbaikan, serta etos kerja. Aspek teknologi meliputi karakteristik teknologi, kemudahan untuk dioperasikan dengan tingkat pendidikan pekerja, keamanan dan kenyamanan ketika digunakan, serta fleksibilitas teknologi. Aspek lingkungan kerja meliputi kondisi sosial ekonomi pekerja, lingkungan sekitar tempat pekerja, dan iklim kerja. Sedangkan aspek organisasi kerja meliputi karakteristik manajemen, dan penerapan semua aturan kerja. Pendekatan mikroergonomi merupakan pendekatan dalam intervensi ergonomi yang hanya mempertimbangkan aspek pekerja dan teknologi. Perbaikan yang dilakukan dalam skala makro maupun mikro didasarkan pada pertimbangan dari aspek pekerja dan teknologi yang akan diterapkan atau diperbaiki, baik itu perbaikan dimensi stasiun kerja, dimensi alat atau mesin,perbaikan sikap kerja, dll. Sedangkan pendekatan rekayasa engineering didasarkan pada perhitungan secara kuantitatif produktifitas yang dihasilkan oleh mesin teknologi yang akan diterapkan. Menurut Carayon dan Smith 2000 pertimbangan organisasi kerja dan ergonomi akan berpengaruh signifikan terhadap performansi pekerja yang pada akhirnya berdampak pada produktifitas kerja yang dihasilkan. Hal ini menjadi realistis karena dalam organisasi kerja terdapat pertimbangan dari aspek manajemen. Aspek manajemen menjadi kunci dalam penerapan setiap intervensi ergonomi dalam perbaikan sistem kerja, karena dalam perbaikan sistem kerja tidak cukup hanya menerapkan sebuah teknologi dalam memperbaiki produktifitas, namun perbaikan dari sisi pengelolaan manajemen dan perbaikan berupa kebijakan – kebijakan yang hanya dapat dilakukan oleh pihak manajemen juga akan berdampak luas pada proses perbaikan yang terjadi. Oleh karenanya pendekatan macroergonomi dinilai sangat layak untuk diterapkan dalam proses perbaikan sistem kerja yang menyeluruh baik pada tingkat usaha makro dan mikro. TUJUAN PENELITIAN Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah 1. Memetakan faktor – faktor makroergonomi yang berpengaruh terhadap proses transfer teknologi pada Industri kecil menengah berbasis potensi lokal 2. Memetakan perbaikan sistem kerja pada masing – masing aspek yang berpengaruh yang dinilai mampu memperbaiki produktifitas kerja yang memungkinkan untuk diterapkan pada Industri Kecil Menengah IKM METODE PENELITIAN Penelitian di lakukan di IKM aneka keripik di desa Cileles Jatinangor dan IKM Krips aneka keripik Pisang di Desa Pagedangan, Indramayu. UKM yang dijadikan objek penelitian merupakan jemis UKM dengan mekanisme sistem produksi secara mandiri. Artinya pemilik usaha melakukan produksi secara mandiri. Metode yang dilakukan dalam pendekatan makroergonomi adalah dengan observasi field study dan wawancara semi struktur. Dua metode ini menurut Hendrick dan Kleiner 2002 relevan untuk diterapkan pada pendekatan makroergonomi. Karena dalam makroergonomi terdapat penggabungan antara aspek sosial, teknikal, dan sosioteknikal. Keuntungan yang diperoleh dari pendekatan observasi adalah diperoleh data riil di lapangan, mengenai aspek penerapan kebijakan manajemen d lapangan, pekerja, proses kerja, serta lingkungan kerja yang mungkin secara spesifik tidak akan diperoleh dari hasil wawancara. Tahapan dalam proses penelitian Berikut ini adalah tahapan penelitian yang dilakukan : 265 Gambar 1. Tahapan proses penelitian Tahapan Diskusi dan Studi literatur Penentuan faktor makroergonomi yang berpengaruh terhadap perbaikan sistem kerja yang nantinya akan dijadikan kategorisasi dalam proses koding, dilakukan melalui diskusi dengan ahli dan studi literatur. Proses perbaikan sistem kerja tidak terlepas dari sebuah proses transfer teknologi, Jupriyanto2012 merumuskan faktor – faktor makroergonomi yang berpengaruh terhadap proses transfer teknologi diantaranya a. Karakteristik teknologi Teknologi b. Karakteristik komunitas yang akan menerima transfer teknologi, sepertiskill, tingkat pendidikan dan pengetahuan, sikap dalam bekerja Karakteristik pekerja c. Karakteristiksosio – ekonomi Karakteristik Pekerja d. Karakteristikmanajerial karakteristik Organisasi kerja e. Sikapdalam bekerja dan dalam organisasi Karakteristik Pekerja f. Karakteristik Budaya Perusahaan, seperti sikap dalam bekerja, sikap dalam teknologi, sikap dan kebiasaan dalam organisasi kerja, orientasi dan motivasi untuk sukses dan maju Karakteristik organisasi kerja MenurutAbarghouei 2012 proses evaluasi kinerja dan intervensi ergonomi hingga tercipta proses intervensi ergonomi yang menyeluruh di dasarkan pada empat hal, yaitu : Daya dukung manjemen dan logistic, daya dukung pengetahuan atau peningkatan kemampuan, partisipasi dan evaluasi pegawai, serta pengembangan SDM. Menurut Kleiner 1999 makroergonomi merupakan sub disiplin ilmu kebaruan dalam proses intervensi ergonomi yang menggabungkan antara faktor teknologi, manusiapekerja, organisasi kerja, dan lingkungan kerja serta interaksi antara empat komponen dalam makroergonomi sistem tersebut. Berdasarkan proses diskusi dan literatur tersebut, maka peneliti mencoba mengelompokan faktor makro ergonomi dalam proses transfer teknologi kedalam setiap aspek elemen dalam makroergonomi. Berikut adalah pengelompokannya : Tabel 1. Pengelompokan faktor dan elemen dalam makroergonomi untuk sistem koding Tabel diatas dijadikan sebagai acuan untuk pengkodean pada proses analisis data. Tahapan Analisis Data Analisis yang diakukan adalah analisis kualitatif. Dalam penelitian kualitatif. Data coding atau pengodean data memegang peranan penting dalam proses analisis data, dan menentukan kualitas abstraksi data hasil penelitian. Hal ini mengacu pada metode penelitian yang digunakan. Sistem coding dilakukan untuk mengkategorisasi dan memetakan faktor – faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap proses perbaikan sistem kerja dengan pendekatan makroergonomi. Berikut adalah tahapan proses analisis data : Gambar 2. Tahapan analisis data Faktor Elemen dalam faktor Etos kerja Karakteristik sosial budaya Skill dalam bekerja Kemampuan menerima perubahan Tingkat pendidikan Manajemen Visi organisasi aturan kerja Sarana prasarana Budaya Kerja Sifat Organisasi Teknologi Sifat teknologi dukungan pihak luar Keberpihakan pemerintah setempat Budaya masyarakat setempat penerimaan masyarakat terhadap aktifitas IKM SDM Organisasi Kerja Lingkungan Kerja Survey kondisi eksisting di lapangan Identifikasi masalah secara umum Interview dengan pihak manajemen dan pengrajin Observasi kondisi di tingkat pengrajin Mendeskripsikan hasil wawancara dan temuan di lapangan Mengkategorisasi secara khusus berdasarkan elemendalam setiap faktor makroergonomi Mengkategorikan elemen kedalam faktor 4 faktor dalam makroergonomi Studi Literatur 266 HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN Perbaikan system kerja tidak terlepas dari proses transfer teknologi yang ada di dalamnya. Proses transfer teknologi pada skala industri kecil dan menengah IKM pada prinsipnya memiliki tuuan yang sama seperti proses transfer teknologi pada industri skala besar, yaitu memberikan nilai tambah pada produk yang dihasilkan serta mampu meningkatkan keuntungan dan keunggulan dari usaha yang dilakukan. Namun ada beberapa aspek yang membedakan. Hal ini dikarenakan IKM memiliki karakteristik yang unik jika dibandingkan dengan industri skala besar. Berikut adalah karakteristik UKM berbasis olahan pangan menurut Rahmah dan Purnomo 2014: Tabel 2. Karakteristik UKM di level pedesaan Gambar 2. Kategori Organisasi kerja SDM MODAL MANAJEMEN BAHAN BAKU TEKNOLOGI PROSES PRODUKSI Skill rendah Masih minim, dan terkadang bergantung pada pihak luar Belum kuat menerapkan aturan organisasi kerja Masih bergantung pada musim panen Penggunaan teknologi masih minim Berbasis pemberdayaa n masyarakat sekitar Tingkat pendidikan rendah Belum berorientasi pada sistem produksi bersih dan aman pada lantai produksinya Belum memiliki sistem penyimpanan bahan baku yang baik Penggunaan masih berorientasi pada produktifitas, bukan pada sisi lainnya Keamanan kerja pekerja Pemahaman yang rendah terkait proses produksi yang berorientasi kualitas Visi dan misi tidak terdokumentasika n dengan jelas Kemampuan mengadopsi teknologi baru atau cara baru rendah 267 Sub Kode alat produksi terbatas Teknologi Sifat teknologi Kapasistas produksi sistem kerja produksi masih acak dan tidak mempertimbangkan aspek ergonomi dalam proses Organisasi kerja aturan kerja design sistem kerja Belum memiliki gerai produk Organisasi kerja Sarana prasarana Sarana pendukung kurangnya dukungan dari aparat pemerintah desa Lingkungan kerja dukungan pemerintah dukungan pemerintah standarisasi kualitas produk secara tertulis belum Organisasi kerja aturan kerja Standari kualitas produk Adanya keinginan memiliki produk dengan label dan desain kemasan yang baik Organisasi kerja Budaya kerja Etos Kerja kemudahan menerima saran dan masukan dari pendamping Organisasi kerja Sifat organisasi Penerimaan terhadap hal baru Prosedur keamanan kerja belum ada Organisasi kerja aturan kerja Prosedur kerja Belum adanya manajemen persediaan bahan baku Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen persediaan Belum adanya sistem produksi berorientasi pada kualitas Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen proses Lingkungan masyarakat sekitar yang dapat diajak kerjasama Lingkungan kerja budaya lingkungan kerja Budaya kerjasama lingkungan sekitar yang memiliki banyak pengrajin Lingkungan kerja budaya lingkungan kerja Budaya berwirausaha Kebutuhan akan pelatihan dan peningkatan skill Organisasi kerja Sifat Organisasi Kemampuan menerima hal baru Belum memiliki visi dan misis dari usaha yang dilakukan Organisasi kerja visi organisasi Perencanaan jangka panjang Ada upaya memperbaiki kualitas produk SDM Kemampuan menerima perubahan Motivasi pribadi Pernyataan Kategori Kode Sub Kode Adanya motivasi dalam diri sendiri untuk maju dan SDM Etos kerja Motivasi pribadi Pengrajin tidak saling berkordinasi dan bekerjasama SDM Karakteristik sosial Budaya Budaya kerjasama pengrajin bebas menghasilkan produk tanpa adanya perencanaan dalam segmentasi Organisasi kerja visi organisasi Segmentasi pasar Pengetahuan akan teknologi masih sangat rendah SDM Skill dalam bekerja Kemampuan dalam mengetahui teknologi baru Teknologi yang digunakan masih manual Teknologi Sifat teknologi Teknologi sederhana Mampu menerima teknologi yang mudah digunakan dan biaya terjangkau SDM Kemampuan menerima perubahan Motivasi pribadi Adanya pelatihan dalam penggunaan teknologi baru dari pihak luar sebagai pendamping Lingkungan kerja Pendampingan Pendampingan Tingkat pendidikan rendah SDM Tingkat Pendidikan Tingkat Pendidikan Mengharapkan adanya pendampingan berkelanjutan Lingkungan kerja Pendampingan Pendampingan dalam proses adopsi teknologi Mengharapkan adanya kerjasama dalam pemasaran Lingkungan kerja Pendampingan Pendampingan pemasaran Mengharapkan dibukakan jejaring dalam pemasaran Lingkungan kerja Pendampingan Pendampingan pemasaran Belum memiliki aturan dalam bekerja Organisasi kerja Manajemen Aturan kerja belum memiliki labeling produk Organisasi kerja visi organisasi branding Belum memiliki alat untuk menghasilkan kemasan dan produk yang lebih baik Teknologi Sifat teknologi Teknologi sederhana Adanya keinginan memperbaiki kemasan produk hingga layak pasar yang lebih luas SDM Kemampuan menerima perubahan Motivasi pribadi belum memiliki pengetahuan akan desain produk yang baik SDM Skill dalam bekerja Kemampuan dalam mengetahui teknologi baru sistem produksi masih berdasarkan pesanan Organisasi kerja Manajemen manajemen produksi belum memiliki jejaring kerjasama dengan pihak lain Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen pemasaran Belum memiliki struktur organisasi kerja Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen organisasi memiliki kemampuan dalam menciptakan produk baru yang bervariasi SDM Skill dalam bekerja Kemampuan dalam mengetahui teknologi baru bahan baku dari potensi lokal setempat Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen persediaan bahan baku sebagian bahan baku diperoleh dari kebun milik sendiri atau kerabat Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen persediaan bahan baku belum ada kerjasama dengan pemiliki lahan yang menyediakan bahan baku Organisasi kerja Manajemen Manajemen persediaan bahan baku ongkos produksi tinggi karena produksi berdasarkan pesanan Organisasi kerja Manajemen manajemen produksi 268 Gambar 3. Kategori sumberdaya manusia Gambar 4. Kategori Lingkungan Kerja Dari hasil pengkodean diperoleh kombinasi faktor dalam makroergonomi yang mempengaruhi sebuah transfer teknologi dalam perbaikan sistem kerja dalam Gambar 4 di atas. Aspek organisasi kerja memegang peranan yang sangat penting dalam mendukung keberhasilan proses transfer teknologi yaitu sebesar 51 . Hal ini berarti bahwa keberhasilan dari sebuah proses transfer teknologi pada IKM akan ditentukan pada kesiapan organisasi kerja pada IKM. Berikut adalah penjabaran mengenai aspek Organisasi kerja yang dimaksud adalah aspek manajemen, visi organisasi, Aturan kerja, Sifat organisasi, Budaya kerja, serta sarana dan prasarana. Aspek sumberdaya manusia menjadi aspek penting lainnya yang harus menjadi pertimbangan dalam sebuah transfer teknologi. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa aspek SDM memiliki posisi strategis dalam proses transfer teknologi, beberapa hal yang menjadi pertimbangan adalah terlihat bahwa sub aspek dalam kategori SDM yang memiliki tingkat kepentingan terbesar adalah kemampuan menerima perubahan hal baru, serta skill atau kemampuan dalam bekerja. Hal ini tentu menjadi landasan teoritis bagi metode yang akan diterapkan dalam pengembangan IKM. Pendekatan secara menyeluruh serta pola – pola pendampingan menjadi catatan penting bagi proses transfer teknologi agar mampu diterima perubahannya oleh IKM. Kemampuan dalam bekerja pun sangat berpengaruh, karena Sedangkan aspek Teknologi menjadi aspek terkecil sebagai factor penentu keberhasilan dari penerapan teknologi. Hal ini tentu memberikan penjelasan tersendiri bahwa melalui pendekatan makroergonomi,dalam proses pengembangan IKM dengan transfer teknologi, teknologi itu sendiri seharusnya tidak menjadi fokus bagi pelaku IKM atau pendamping IKM. Namun penyiapan aspek organisasi kerja, SDM, serta lingkungan kerja, menjadi hal lain yang perlu diperhatikan dalam pengembangan IKM. Rekomendasi alternative teknologi atau perbaikan yang akan di transfer dengan pendekatan makroergonomi Tabel 4. Rekomendasi perbaikan sistem kerja KESIMPULAN 1. Terdapat beberapa factor dalam proses transfer teknologi pada IKM berbasis komoditas local melalui pendekatan makroergonomi, yaitu organisasi kerja, SDM, Lingkungan kerja dan Teknologi. Faktor Alternatif teknologi atau perbaikan yang di transfer Membuat dan menerapkan aturan dalam bekerja secara tertulis Membuat kerjasama dengan penyedia bahan baku Membuat visi organisasi yang jelas Melakukan kerjasama dengan pihak pendamping dalam menjejaringkan pemasaran produk Membuat program peningkatan softskill dan hardskill dalam menciptakan produk baru Membuat program peningkatan softskill dan hardskill dalam menciptakan produk baru Ciptakan suasana kerja yang nyaman bagi pekerja Jalin komunikasi yang baik dengan aparat pemerintah setempat Berikan program pemberdayaan bagi masyarakat setempat Pendampingan yang berkelanjutan Perhatikan kemudahan teknologi bagi calon pengguna Dilakukan penjelasan akan pentingnya teknologi yang akan ditransfer Lakukan pendampingan dalam pengoperasian dan pemeliharaan Organisasi kerja SDM Lingkungan kerja Teknologi 269 2. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan, factor yang memegang tingkat kepentingan yang cukup besar dalam proses transfer teknologi adalah organisasi kerja dan SDM. Tentu hal ini menjadi pertimbangan yang harus diperhatikan dalam proses transfer teknologi pada IKM.

3. Faktor teknologi menjadi faktor terakhir

yang memiliki tingkat kepentingan yang paling kecil. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa melalui pendekatan makroergonomi penerapan teknologi baru bukan menjadi satu – satunya cara yang dapat dilakukan untuk memperbaiki sistem kerja guna meningkatkan produktifitas pada IKM DAFTAR PUSTAKA Abarghouei, Nasab. 2012. An Ergonomic Evaluation and Intervention Model: Macro ergonomic approach. International Journal of Scientific Engineering Research, Volume 3, Issue 2 Carayonand Smith. 2000. Work organization and ergonomics. Applied Ergonomics 31 2000 649}662 Juprianto, Iridiastadi, Zutalaksana, and Nur Bahagia S. 2013. Indonesian Technology Transfer Successful Model with a Macroergonomics Framework. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 94: 2520-2525. Kleiner, 1999. Macroergonomic Analysis and Design for improve safety and Quality Performance. International Journal Of Occupational Safety and Ergonomic. Vol : 5, No.2, 217-245. Stanton, et all. 2005. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Method.Washington DC : CRC Press. 270 271 The Role of Communication Networks in Group Sustainability : A Case Study in Majalengka Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia Jaka Sulaksana Faculty of Agriculture, Majalengka University, Majalengka ABSTRACT Keywords: Communication network collective action sub leader cut-point bridge The research wa s conducted in Majalengka Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia. The Mekar Jaya Group underwent four phases in its lifetime. Each phase had its own characteristics and processes, including the election and succession of a leader, collective action and conflict. These characteristics and processes implied that there wa s a communication network within the group in each phase. The current study describes the network, the role of the leader in the network and the role of the network in group sustainability. The results show that there were some bridges in the network that helped the group to survive after conflict. Most of the bridges or cut-points were sub-leaders. There is also a shift of basis of clique formation from neighborhood to closeness of relationship Korespondensi Penulis Alamat e-mail: j_sulaksanayahoo.com 272 INTRODUCTION Group sustainability has become an important condition for the continuity of society- empowerment programs in relation with poverty- reduction programs. One model of group sustainability is the Mekar Jaya Group MJG, which is located in Majalengka regency, West Java Province, Indonesia. The MJG experienced four group leader successions, resulting in four group phases of life. These leaders were involved in cooperating with the outer part. Along that time, the Mekar Jaya Group MJG was a farmers group that accepted external aid. Since 1989, the Mekar Jaya Group accepted aid from university and the local government. Cooperation with outer part demonstrated that there was a communication process flowed from the outside to the inside of the group. It was then delivered to all members in the group.. The following question remains: how did the group manage the communication network to implement programs and solve conflict and then enter the latter phase? In order to answer this question, it is important to observe the communication network in each phase. Therefore, the current work addresses the following questions: 1. What was the communication network structure within the group in each phase? 2. Did within group communication patterns influence the group’s sustainability? 3. What was the role of the leader in the within group communication flow in each phase? A social network is a structure that is composed of a set of actors, some of whom are connected by a set of one or more relations. Social structures can be represented as networks, sets of nodes or social system members and sets of ties depicting their interconnections Wellman Berkowitz, 1988, p.4. Historical overviews of the origins and diffusions of network principles have been presented by Freeman 2004, Scott 2000, and Knox, Savage, and Harvey 2006. In Bavelas’ design Bavelas, 1950, each in- group individual is given certain information. The group is given the task of assembling this information, using it to make a decision, and then issuing orders based on this decision. The critical feature of the design is that the group members are separated from one another and can communicate only through channels that can be opened or closed by the member. This feature implies that the communication network is the main element of the social network. Jacobson and Seashore 1951 proposed that the structure of an organization can be conceptualized and described in terms of the regular, work-related, interpersonal communication patterns that are established between pair of individuals. The methodology for the approach and a set of structural concepts for classifying network data was described in detail by Weiss and Jacobson 1955 in a report on an application of the procedure in a government agency. There are several steps in network analysis. The first step is to obtain a record of regular dyadic linkages by asking members to list the names of persons in the organization with whom they work most closely. Next , the reported contacts are compared against each other in a matrix to determine reciprocation of contact mutual choice among respondents. Only reciprocated contacts are used to define the communication network. The last step in the process allows one to separate out the groups and to classify all members of the organization into one of the following role types: group member, brokerage bridge, and isolate. Rogers and Kincaid 1981 stated that a communication network is the pattern of varying communication elements that are demonstrated by communication flow patterns in a system. The analysis of a communication network may include the following: 1 identifying a clique in the system; 2 identifying the role of a person in the system; and 3 measuring communication network indicators, such as the degree of openness and the integration of the system, including centrality degree. In order to measure or analyze the network, the following process is conducted. As mentioned, the first step is to obtain a record of regular dyadic linkages by asking members to list the names of the persons in the organization with whom they work most closely. Next, the reported contacts are compared against each other in a matrix to determine reciprocation of contact mutual choice among respondents. This matrix is called the adjacency matrix with symmetric relationships. An example is displayed in table 1. Table 1. The adjacency matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 - 1 1 1 1 2 1 - 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 - 1 1 4 1 1 1 - 1 1 5 1 1 1 - 0. 1 6 1 1 1 - 1 7 1 1 - 273 Table 1 shows the relationships among members. When one member has a reciprocal relationship with another member, the line is coded as 1 for both individuals e.g., the relationship between node 1 and 2 is a reciprocal relationship. However, if one member has no reciprocal relationship with another member, the line is coded as 1 and 0 e.g., the relationship between node 1 and node 4. From this matrix, we can display the digraph of the communication network. Every member is symbolized by a node and connected with a line. In relation to the nodes of relationships in the network structure, the concept of the star is also typically used. Ognyanova, et al 2010 stated that the star is the actor or node that has many connections or is highly central. In cliques, many stars should exist because there is a leader in a clique, and that leader was the star. However, an absolute definition of the star for this paper is needed because numerous nodes have many connections. Therefore, the number of connections that the star can have should be determined. It can be seen from the adjacent table that several nodes could be stars. Table 2. The Distribution Connections of Nodes Number of reciprocal connections Number of nodes Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV 2 1 11 23 7 2 2 9 8 15 3 15 4 6 6 4 2 7 4 2 5 4 1 6 1 1 1 7 8 2 9 1 10 1 2 1 1 11 1 12 1 1 13 Total Number of Stars 5 4 2 3 Source: Primary data, 2002 and 2011 Based on Table 2, the total number of stars in each phase can be defined and reflect the opinion leader in each phase in reality after combining the result of visual graph analysis in result section and qualitative research in the field. In phase I, there was a leader of group node 1 and there were 4 opinion or sub leaders node 8,9,22, and 28. These leaders have their own cliques. The leader has 8 mutual connections in group. The sub leader 8 has 10 mutual connections, the sub leader 9 has 6 mutual connections, the sub leader 22 has 8 mutual connections, the sub leader 28 has 9 mutual connections. Therefore, the total number of star is 5. In phase II, there were still five opinion leaders and one of them became a group leader. The sub leader 1 has 6 mutual connections, the sub leader 8 has 11 mutual connections, the sub leader 9 has 5 mutual connections, the sub leader 22 has 10 mutual connections, the sub leader 28 has 10 mutual connections. However, only 4 cliques occurred in group because the opinion leader 1 and 9 united in one clique in this phase and the sub leader 1 became the clique leader. The sub leader 9 tends to have a function as coordinator or facilitator among the sub leaders. Therefore the total number of stars in phase II is 4. In phase III, there was a decrease of sub leader number which is reflected by the decrease of the clique number. In this phase, only there are two cliques and two sub leaders. They were node 9 and 22. Node 1 and 8 were not the sub leaders again because the conflict between them and their follower joined to another clique and in the reality, these ex- sub leaders reduced their activity in group, especially the node 8, he started inactive at the end of phase III and became fully inactive in phase IV. The ex sub leader 28 also has loss their followers because most of his followers are the free riders. The sub leader 9 has 10 mutual connections and the sub leader 22 has 12 mutual connections. It is clearly that these nodes are the stars. In phase IV, there were three sub leaders. They were the sub leader 9,22,28. The sub leader 9 has 6 mutual connections, the sub leader 22 has 12 mutual connections, and the sub leader 28 has 10 mutual connections. These leaders are the leader of their cliques and became the stars. Clique analysis to investigate group structures helps researchers understand how cohesion benefits group members by providing advice and instrumental support and how an extensive reliance on cliques restricts. A clique is a maximal complete sub-graph of three or more nodes, all of which are directly connected to one another, with no other node in the network having direct ties to every member of the clique Knoke Yang, 2008. Rogers and Kincaid 1981 defined the clique as a subsystem whose elements interact with each other relatively more frequently than with other members of the communication system. Individuals are placed into cliques based on the following three criteria: 1. Each clique must have a minimum of three members. 2. Each clique member must have at least 50 percent of hisher links within the clique the average number of links within the clique is 274 taken from the number of links and then divided by the number of clique members. 3. All clique members must be directly or indirectly connected by a continuous chain of dyadic links within the clique. The current paper used the term clique proposed by both Knoke and Yang and Rogers and Kincaid, but with modifications on the third criteria that all clique members are directly or indirectly connected by reciprocal links or non-reciprocal links within the clique. However, exceptions occur in real- life situations. If one criterion is not satisfied, but the other criteria are satisfied, the network can be considered to be a clique. The network analysis field has devoted considerable energy to developing methods for identifying central nodes in a network that are important to diffusion and other actions that occur in networks Borgatti and Everett, 2006. In contrast, Granovetter 1973 introduced the concept of bridging, which emphasizes the importance of structural bridges for diffusion. According to Granovetter 1973, 1982, bridges reduce the overall distance between individuals in a network, enabling information to spread more rapidly throughout the network. In the present paper, the bridge is the link, and the node is referred to as the cut-point. Furthermore, the definition of the bridge is expanded to not only connect two cliques, but also to connect one node and the network. The expansion is made because there were some nodes free riders in the phase III group that connect to the group through members that functioned as cut-points. Thus, the types of bridge in this paper are the following: 1 clique-bridges that connect between clique and clique and 2 node- bridges that connect a node and network. Here, a node is an isolated member if it is disconnected from the network. It can be concluded that a cut-point is a node that has the line that can connect between a network and isolated node or clique and clique. A bridge is a line that belongs to a cut-point that can connect between the network and isolated node or clique and clique. The current paper also presents a description of the communication network in one group along its life over the long term and explains the influence of the network on group sustainability. The specific method used was some questions about the closeness of the relationship of members in each phase. This study presents an explanation of the relationship between collective action and network change within a group. It continues the previous study by Tacaks, Janky and Flache 2008. They studied network change over time and its relationship with collective action through research on the connected theme and proposed the model of social control and collective action. The previous paper was a secondary case study, whereas the current paper is a field work study. In fact, none of the previous studies on network change over the life span utilized field work. MATERIALS AND METHODS This case study generates a descriptive explanation of a group communication network. The location of research was Cangkring hamlet of Kadipaten Village, Kadipaten Subdistrict, Majalengka Regency, West Java Province. The location was chosen because there were many programs and internal conflicts within the group that were resolved by the communication network. The research population included all 69 members of the Mekar Jaya Group. The research sample included the entire population, which increased the significance of the results complete enumeration. The number of members varied according to the phase to which they belonged. The unit of analysis was the communication network in- group. The data were collected through interviews, field work and focus group discussions. Surveys were administrated as in-person interviews with an emphasis on the member ’s description or explanation on a questionnaire that was tested with selected members in each leadership era the group experienced four leadership changes. Members were asked to recall the relationship structure within the group. The primary questions were as follows: 1 Who were the people in the subgroup neighborhood with whom you often discussed matters important to you? 2 Who were the people in another subgroup neighborhood with whom you often discussed matters important to you? Respondents were also asked how often they talked to each individual, on average, and the various types of role relations relative, neighbor, and friend present in those cases. The reliability analysis was conducted using repeated method and produced Jaccard ’s coefficient. In the first interview, the informant who was checked was 10 of the original sample i.e., 7 names. The second interview yielded 6 names, and 5 persons were chosen at both interviews. Jaccard ’s coefficient = 55+2+1 = 0.63. The reliability result also reflected the validity of items. The informants should be weighted by their reliability Knoke Yang, 2008. Furthermore, group discussions were held to gather qualitative information about the group. The field work was conducted by the researcher. Data collection took place in 2002 and was updated in 275 2011. A visual graph display was used to show and analyze the network using Netdraw. The goal of this research was to determine how the communication network structure occurs within a group. This structure is important because it is expected that the communication network structure had a strong influence on how the group overcame conflict and maintained the group process. The last step in the process allowed us to separate out the groups and to classify all members of the organization into one of the following role types: group member, brokerage bridge, and isolate. Next, calculations such as centrality degree were conducted. Centrality Degree CD measures the extent to which a node connects to all other nodes in a social network. For a non-directed graph with g actors, the degree of centrality for actor node i is the sum of i ’s direct ties to the g – 1 other actors. In matrix notation, g CD A Ni = ∑ x ij I ≠ j J= 1 Where CD A Ni denotes centrality degree for node i and ∑ x ij counts the number of direct ties that node i has to the g – 1 other j nodes I ≠ j excludes i ’ s relation to itself. After calculating the centrality degree of actors, we calculated the group centrality degree. Unlike actor centrality degree, group centrality degree measures the extent to which the actors in a social network differ from one another in their individual centrality degree. The centrality degree of group closely resembles measures of dispersion in descriptive statistics, such as the standard deviation, that indicate the amount of variation or spread around a central tendency value. Freeman 1979 proposed a generic measure of group centrality degree: g ∑ [C A N – C A N i ] i=1 CD G = _________________________ g Max ∑ [C A N – C A N i ] i=1 Where C A N denotes the largest actor centrality degree observed in a network, and the C A N i are the centrality degrees of the g-1 other actors. Thus, the numerator sums the observed differences between the largest actor centrality and all others. The denominator is the theoretically maximum possible sum of those differences. GROUP DESCRIPTION Group Collective Action The Mekar Jaya Group life history includes four phases of group life. Each phase had its own collective action as one of manifestation of network communication. In phase I 1989-1994, the collective action was the planting of trees that had leaves for feeding. Trees were planted along the Cilutung River. Some of the small trees could be harvested within six months to one year, whereas others could be harvested after several years. Another collective action, gathering and selling sheep feces, was also started in phase I. Many farmers in the upland area needed it for become fertilizer. They typically stacked the feces near a stall and let it dry. After drying, it would be placed in sacks, collected by the sub group leader, and sold to the buyer. The group members agreed to a price of IDR 15,000 per sack. The frequency of feces collection was once every three months. One stall could produce six sacks, on average, resulting in 180 sacks from all stalls owned by the active members. The last collective action was the group meeting. During group meetings, all or a representative of sub-group members met and discussed the issues that the group faced. Meetings were held every month. The selection of a new group leader was also facilitated by the group meeting, as the incumbent suggested a new name and the members voted for him. In phase II 1995-1997, the collective action was preparing the grass for sheep feeding. Because of the large number of sheep, the group planted grass along the river bank. The land along the river bank was owned by the village. The group could plant grass on this land through the approval of the village head. The land use was divided and distributed to subgroup members. The group meeting was also conducted in phase II, but it was not held as often as was the case in phase I. The group meeting was held when the members approved the new leader in this phase. Then, at the end of the phase, the succession of the phase II leader occurred, resulting in the beginning of phase III. In phase III 1997-2002, the utilization of land for planting grass did not seem to satisfy the necessity of sheep feeding, especially when the dry season arrived. The group initiated grass collection from remote locations with an abundance of grass stock. The chosen location was Sumber village, at Sumber sub district, Cirebon. They often used the truck that was owned by the sugar factory, but also sometimes rented a truck that was owned by the villagers to travel to Sumber. They left in the morning and returned in the afternoon. 276 In phase III, the other collective action was the arisan . Arisan or ROSCA rotary savings and credit association was conducted in the third year of the project. Each member paid IDR 5,000 per month to the sub leader. Every month, the group held a raffle in which four members won. However, the implementation of arisan could not exist in the long term because group conflict arose. The group meeting was again promoted. It started with the succession of the leader from phase II to the new leader in phase III, followed by the division of the group into sub-groups to make the program run effectively. However, halfway through phase III, conflict arose when the return of aid did not run smoothly. The impact was that the program could not be implemented effectively. From phase IV until now, the group has revitalized the group size. In phase IV 2002-2009, the group meeting was held when the group decided to revitalize the group size by reducing the group membership. Planting grass at the river bank continued to satisfy the needs of feeding. The last action that is still ongoing was the gathering of sheep feces and selling it to the farmers in the upland area of Majalengka. The Change in Group Members The Mekar Jaya Group experienced four periods of change in size. The phase I group included 30 people all of them were active members until phase IV, the phase II group included 50 people consisting of 30 people of phase I and 20 new members, 12 of which became active members and 8 of which became inactive members, the phase III group included 69 people consisting of 30 people of phase I, 20 people of phase II and 19 new members who became inactive and left the group in the latter phase and the phase IV group included 34 people. These data were updated in 2011 as following. Data were collected in 2002, 2009, and 2011. In 2002, 69 individuals all members were interviewed, and the units of analysis were group dynamics and the group communication network. In 2009, 42 people phase IV group were interviewed, and the unit of analysis was group dynamics. In the 2009 data collection, the phase IV group included 39 individuals, with 27 people from the phase I group and 12 people from the phase II group. In 2011, 34 people phase IV group were interviewed, and the unit analysis was the group communication network. This final membership in Phase IV included the Phase I group 24 people and the Phase II group 10 people. Six members from phase I recently passed away and 2 members from phase II are no longer members, as they have moved to another village since 2010. No members from the Phase III group remained in the group. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Communication Network in Phase I The group accepted aid in the form of sheep from Bogor Agricultural University. The leader of phase I was elected in the group meeting. The meeting was held at hamlet hall Cangkring hamlet hall. All of the members attended the meeting and not exception the BAU officer. This meeting is called musyawarah . “Musyawarah” is a term in Indonesian culture that means a group discussion for solving a problem. In musyawarah, there is no voting. The members release the issue, and then by some considerations, all of the members agree on a choice through their opinion leaders, even if all members attend the meeting. In the MJG meeting, the members agreed to choose leader A phase I leader as the group leader. One reason for this choice was that leader A actively encouraged the villagers to make a group. Another reason was that leader A was assumed as the brave man in the hamlet. He typically did not hesitate to release the opinion and statement for the deed. However, this characteristic later became his weakness in the conflict between him and the village apparatus. He made a choice that was contrary to the decision of the village head. Later, the group meeting was used to discuss any issue that the group faced, and this was encouraged by the BAU officer. He often used the group meeting to deliver his knowledge and new innovation to the members. The group meeting was typically conducted monthly in leader A ’s house. The members of the group were the Cangkring hamlet residents. Some people were invited by leader A, supported by the BAU officer to build the group. They invited their neighbor, who was also involved in sheep husbandry, from a different neighborhood or Rukun Tetangga RT. This decision was based on the suggestion of the BAU officer to increase the economic community. Of the 6 RTs in the Cangkring hamlet, 4 RTs were chosen because the residents were primarily farmers and husbandries. The other RTs’ residents were primarily vegetable traders and small shop traders. Then, 22 husbandries met together and built the group. They felt that the group was not complete without the relationship with sheep traders. Thus, they also invited 8 sheep traders in the hamlet to join. The final membership totaled 30 people. When the group cooperated with the BAU officer, several programs were planned in relation with the aid, including planted trees. The group also had a division of roles. The leader chose one 277 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 secretary and one treasurer to manage the project. After they chose the leader, secretary and treasurer, they chose the group location near an irrigation pool. The group meeting musyawarah and the structure of the group demonstrate the flow of communication in the group. The communication network feature in phase I is shown by figure 1. Each node represents a member. The leader A is node 1, the secretary is node 9 and the treasurer is node 8. Figure 4 shows that there was no bridge in the network. The network was stable. Figure 1 also shows that there were some stars within the group. The stars are node 1, 8, 9, 22, and 28. Focus group discussion revealed that all of these nodes became the opinion leader in their sub groups. In phase I, the sub groups were informal. Note: :RT 03 ; : RT 04 ; : RT 05; : RT 06 ; : non-reciprocal tie; : reciprocal tie Fig 1. Communication Network in Phase I There were four cliques in phase I ’s network structure refer to the criteria for cliques in the introduction: 1. Clique 1: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 2. Clique 2: 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 3. Clique 3: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 4. Clique 4: 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 Four cliques were constructed because there was a dyadic or reciprocal relationship composition of complete sub-graph among some members and separated with another member. One clique had the main complete of sub-graphs. The clique could consist of the main complete of sub-graphs e.g., clique 2, clique 3, and clique 4 or it could consist of the main complete of sub-graphs and non-complete of sub-graphs because of non-reciprocal ties e.g., clique 1. Clique 1 had main complete of sub-graphs. That is, the sub-graphs were built from the triangle 1- 2-4, 1-2-3, 1-3-9, and 1-9-10. However, other triangles were built from non-reciprocal ties, including 1-4-5, 1-5-6, and 1-7-1, but these triangles were also connected with the main sub-graphs of clique 1. Thus, they were included in clique 1. The basis of clique formation was the RT. There were four RTs RT 03, RT 04, RT 05, RT 07 as the basis of clique formation. The clique criteria were not completely satisfied perfectly. Of the three criteria, only two criteria were fully satisfied. However, it was considered as one clique. Node 22 in clique 5 did not satisfy the second clique criteria because the average link was only 0.4. However, because it satisfied the third criteria, it was included in clique 5. Every opinion leader was linked to the group leader node 1. This is clearly shown by the close relationships among opinion leaders, which tend to appear as a clique node 1, 8, 9, 22, 28. It was easier for the leader to coordinate with other members. Every program in phase I the returning of sheep and the planting of trees succeeded. In 1995, there was a conflict between leader A and village apparatus. The resulting group conflict led to a succession of leadership. The conflict between Leader A and the village administrators was due to the plan to move the location. Leader A, who was not liked by the village administrators, accused them of seeking a profit from the land used for housing. The village administrators realized that if the location of the stalls was moved to a specific area, the group would receive aid from the local government. The situation became complicated, and most of the members supported the plan to move. Finally, the leader gave up but, he did not want to continue as the leader because he did not want to be viewed as a loser, and he nominated his replacement. However, he retained power in the group, and he remained active even after the conflict with the village administrators. He gave his position to the secretary. This was the beginning of a new phase and new network structure within the group. Furthermore, from Table 3 to Table 6 it seen clearly about total sheep industry which were produced in group and sheep ownership of cut-points.

IV.2 Communication Network in Phase II

The leader of phase II leader B continued to lead the group after leader A resigned. Leader A gave his position to leader B node 9 after the moving plan conflict. The location was moved to the land near the Cilutung river bank. Leader B began as leader after the members’ approval at the meeting. In this phase, the friendship between leader B and the treasurer node 8 became closer. Leader B felt that the treasurer had more knowledge on 278 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 managing the group. Due to the treasurer’s experience in group internships and close association with a government officer, leader B and another member often requested his suggestions. Through his mediation, the group accepted aid from the family planning coordination body BKKBN. In this period, the membership increased from 30 to 50 people. The additional individuals were invited by the members. Relative and friendship relations became the choice of consideration. All of the opinion leader in the group, including leader B, the secretary, and the treasurer, invited people from their neighborhood into the group. Note: : RT 03; : RT 04; : RT 05; : RT 06; : non-reciprocal tie; : reciprocal tie Fig 2. Communication Network in phase II There were 5 stars in the network: nodes 1, 8, 9, 22, and 28. As shown in figure 2, there were 6 cut-points in the new structure. These cut-points are the blue nodes node 14, 11, 13, 37, 27 and 46. They appeared when the membership increased and were some of the individuals who invited new members into the group. For example, node 46 invited node 47 and node 13 invited node 42. All of the bridges in phase II were node-bridges. As previously stated, the relative and friend relation became the consideration by the members of the group. There were several reasons for this. First , it was easier to coordinate with them; second , there was a desire to help brothers and friends achieve a better life; and third , the priority was a farmer or husbandry. The increase in the member population resulted in the increase in the clique member population. The basis of clique formation remained the RT. However, due to the new members invited by the cut-points, the clique member population increased. However, a shift occurred when two members of one RT became members of another clique nodes 5 and 10 became members of another clique. This occurred because of their friendship relationship. The cliques were the following: 1. Clique 1: 1, 2, 3,4, 6, 7, 9 2. Clique 2: 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 49, 50 3. Clique 3: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 4. Clique 4: 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 5, 10 Figure 2 also displays that in-group communication flowed through the opinion leader. Nodes 8, 9, 22, and 28 helped leader B coordinate the group. Node 1 also helped leader B. Although node 1 was not active in the management team, his opinion was considered by those close to him. Therefore, their close relationship appears as a clique. However, a comparison of figure 2 and figure 1 shows that figure 2 is less stable than figure 1. The chain of communication became longer due to the increasing group size. Communication Network in Phase III The period of phase II was only two years 1995 – 1997. After the completion of the project, the aid from BKKBN, the treasurer offered the group aid from the livestock office, Majalengka regency government. Leader B and the members accepted it. At the same time, leader B suggested to the group that the treasurer would be a proper leader. Leader B considered himself as the interim leader from leader A. The members accepted this change in leadership, and the treasurer became the phase III leader, or leader C. In phase III, the group accepted aid from livestock office of regency. In this period of aid, the membership increased from 50 to 69 people. The recruitment of new members was not as effective as was previously the case. In phase II, one of the considerations for recruitment was the position of farmer or husbandry; however, in phase III, this position was not necessary to become a member. The goal covered the number that was requested by the aid. To facilitate the distribution and use of aid, the group divided into four formal subgroups. Each subgroup had a sub leader that was the opinion leader in the earlier phase. One sub-leader then became the group leader. He was the phase III leader the sub- leader of subgroup 1. The sub-leader of subgroup 2 was the phase II leader, and the sub-leader of subgroup 3 was the phase IV leader. The sub-leader of subgroup 4 never became the group leader. The leader of phase I was not involved in group management because he had another side job as security in the sugar factory. 279 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 Figure 6 shows the communication network structure within the group. There were 11 cut-points in the group: points 9, 14, 17, 22, 28, 29, 41, 50, 64, 66, and 67. This is an important position for an individual because if they were omitted, the network would be disconnected. Many free riders are clearly displayed in the figure, such as nodes 31, 32, 37, and 38. They did not have a strong intention of being a group member. Figure 6 also shows the isolated members, node 55 and 65. They did not have a relationship with any of the other members. They were unskilled and less motivated members, and none of them owned sheep. As membership increased, the centrality of the group dispersed. In addition, an internal conflict arose and made the condition worse than it had previously been. At the end of the group phase, it was difficult to maintain control, and members were divided into several cliques. Figure 6 demonstrates that node 9 and 22 had the most reciprocated relationships with the other members. They were the leader of subgroups. Node 9 was the leader of phase II, and node 22 was the leader of phase IV. These nodes became the stars. Thus, the number of stars decreased from that in the earlier phase because of the reduced power of the opinion leader and the increased number of free riders. These free riders were not active in the group. Nodes 9 and 22 were also clique-bridges that connected two cliques, clique 2 and clique 3. This indicates that they had relationships with members who were not in their clique. It also implies that they had a strong influence on the communication flow within the group. They had the ability to influence the opinion of their clique members and other clique members. Figure 6 also shows that only node 8, the sub leader, did not act as the bridge. He was the leader C. The internal conflict began due to a conflict between the leader of phase I node 1 and the leader of phase III node 8 concerning new member recruitment. Note: : RT 03 ; : RT 04 ; : RT 05 ; : RT 06 ; : non-reciprocal tie ; : reciprocal tie Fig.3. Communication Network in Phase III after the conflict The basis of clique formation had shifted. In previous phases, the basis was RT phase I and RT with expanded members phase II. In phase III, the basis was effectiveness of relationships. Friends who were not from the same RT were involved in the group. The cliques were the following: 1. Clique 1: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 24, 26, 27, 35, 36, 28, 25, 5, 37, 30, 31, 32, 38, 29, 34, 33 2. Clique 2: 8, 9, 22, 15, 16, 19, 40, 39 3. Clique 3: 13, 39, 42, 22, 23, 21, 18, 44, 14, 17, 58, 20, 45, 46, 56, 61, 48, 49, 47, 59, 43, 54, 12, 60, 50, 41, 53, 11, 52, 64, 66, 51, 69, 63, 62, 68, 67, 57 The number of cliques was only three, although there were four formal subgroups in the beginning of phase III. Clique 3 increased in size after the conflict between leader A and leader C began, as the conflict resulted in the deterioration of the group. The conflict resulted in the decreased power of both leader C and leader A. Furthermore, Leader C gradually retreated from the group. Therefore, the clique of leader C dispersed, and most of its members joined another clique, making a large clique whose leader was node 22. This also happened in another clique. Node 28 Sub-leader could not maintain his clique after the conflict because of the free riders; therefore, he and his followers joined another clique, which was led by node 9. The coordination among the opinion leaders was happened in clique 2 even the leader C node 8 tended to be inactive in the end of phase III. After the conflict, the collective action implementation decreased. Practically, the action was selling the feces and gathering grass from the river bank or remote locations. Arisan ended, and group meetings were rarely held. If a group meeting was held, the meeting leader was node 22, not node 8. In phase III, the configuration of the network was the least stable. There were genuine cliques, which refer to clique theory in the introduction, and followers who joined the cliques. These followers were the free riders who became the inactive members. The example of a genuine clique is node 9, 7, 3, but they had many followers, thus constituting clique 1. 280 1 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 37 41 50 51 53 68 67 58 59 In Table 5, it seen that in total, population of sheep was continue to decrease. There was a decreasing of sheep number in high and medium category, then move to add the population in low category. Furthermore, the number of inactive member was upward. The economic crisis actually reached its peak in this phase when the raise of fuel has been implemented for the first time, therefore the member has beaten by the impact of its crisis. Beside the free riders or inactive members who did not spend the loan to buy the sheep mother, some of active members also use part of their money to fulfill their needs.

IV.4 Communication Network in Phase IV

The leader of phase IV leader D was prepared by leader C to be the next leader. He was the youngest among the sub-leaders. Leader C felt that it was the proper time for regeneration in the group. The other leadership consideration was a native villager of Cangkring hamlet, so there was no reason to doubt his intention towards the group. Leader C was accused of not having good intentions in managing the group because he was not a native villager in the hamlet. Leader C’s proposal of leader D was supported by the opinion leaders. Leader D, with another sub-leader, revitalized the group. All of the active members were re- gathered. All of the inactive members, including the free riders, were excluded from the group. In phase IV, there was no new innovation in the group’s collective action. The action continued from the previous phase, such as planting grass and selling feces. They accepted aid from the village government for sheep fattening with the same system as that in phase I. The project was completed in 2010. Figure 7 displays that three stars existed in the network. They were nodes 9, 22, and 28. Although node 28 experienced a decrease in power in phase III, he became a star again in phase IV due to the group revitalization. The free riders were excluded from the group. Note: : RT 03 ; : RT 04 ; : RT 05 ; : RT 06 ; : non-reciprocal tie ; : reciprocal tie Fig 4. Communication Network in Phase IV There was one bridge in the network: node 28. He was the clique-bridge that connected clique 3 with cliques 1 and 2. There were three cliques in phase IV. Clique 1 was the largest, as it continued from the previous phase. There was also one clique that became smaller because it spread into two cliques, that is, the clique with the leader node 9 and the clique with the leader node 28. The cliques were the following: 1. Clique 1: 22, 19, 23, 15, 16, 17, 21, 18, 20, 58, 67, 59, 51, 14, 11, 50, 12, 51, 68, 53, 41 2. Clique 2: 1, 2, 3, 7, 9 3. Clique 3: 28, 10, 26, 5, 27, 30, 37, 25, 29 The basis of clique formation was the same as that in phase III: the effectiveness of relationships. Clique 2 became smaller than it had previously been. After the conflict and the group revitalization, the power of leaders A and B decreased. In contrast, the power of leader D increased from the end of phase III. In phase IV, there were also close relationships among the sub-leaders or opinion leaders, who created a clique. These nodes were 9, 22 and 28. Centrality Degree of Network in the Group The two main explanations of the results are the communication network pattern and the centrality degree of the network in each phase because the group underwent four phases in its lifetime. The centrality degree is important in describing the effectiveness of the network chain within the group. Table 3. Centrality of network Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV Centr ality Degre e 34.73

19.13 15.28

32.58 Source: Primary data, 2011 Table 3 shows that the centrality degree fluctuated in value. In phase I, the centrality degree value was the highest of all of the phases at 34.73. This indicates that there was no absolute power in the group. There were also some opinion leaders in the group besides the group leader leader A; however, the group leader coordinated with the opinion leaders. 281 The centrality degree value decreased in phase II due to the increased number of members demanded by the aid. However, the appearance of the cut-points bridge lines maintained the communication flow between the leaders and the members. The centrality degree continued to decrease in phase III, when the membership continued to increase. It was deteriorated by the conflict between leader A leader of phase I and leader C leader of phase III. However, when the research was conducted, the followers of these leaders decreased from the earlier phase. Leader C and leader A reduced their group activity. Thus, the power of another sub leader controlled the network within the group. The reduction of membership to revitalize the group increased the centrality degree in phase IV. Although the centrality value was smaller than that in phase I, it was greater than that in phase II and III, when the leader controlled the coordination within the group. Although there was a change in the basis of clique communication network structure from RT to friendship or relative clearly shown by phase I and phase IV as the climax, the centrality degree was high due to unity of the group. It was no matter what of the basis of clique formation. CONCLUSION In each phase, the communication network pattern within the group changed. The pattern changed from a network without bridges, and then connected through many bridges, to a network with only one bridge in the last phase. The existence of bridges in the communication network within the group was very important. The nodes that had bridges were the cut-points. If they did not remain in the group, the network would have been broken. Some of the cut-points were the sub-group leaders who later became the group leader. They were an important key to delivering the group from phase II to phase III and phase IV. The position of the cut-point was also important to deliver the information from the leader to the members especially, when the number increased. As the membership increased, the centrality in network decreased. The centrality value decreased from phase I to phase III, and then rose again in phase IV, when membership was reduced. In term of sheep ownership, the population of sheep which owned by the star has experienced the fluctuation. Peak performance of sheep population has reached in phase I, then decreased and reached peak declining in phase III. It was upward again in phase IV. There is a reciprocal relationship between the network and collective action. The network changed in every phase, especially since phase II until phase IV. The network often changed to adjust to the program and make the program easier to conduct. In contrast, some collective action was carried out through adjustments in the existing network. In relation with network basis, the value of centrality degree was not affected because the main point of centrality degree is unity, not the basis of the network. ACKNOWLEDMENT Special thanks to Professor Takenori Matsumoto, Supervising professor, who provided much support, especially for his kindness and willingness to intensively discuss the paper. I am also thankful for the great support from the Directorate General and Higher Education, Ministry of National Education of Indonesia, which provided financial aid for the research. REFERENCES Bavelas, A. 1950. Communication patterns in task- oriented groups. J. Acoustical Soc. America 22 , 725-730. Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G., 2006. A graph- theoritic perspective on centrality. Social Networks 28 , 466-484. Freeman, L.C. 2004. The Development of Social Network Analysis : A Study in the sociology of Sciences . Vancouver, Canada:Empirical Press. Knoke and Yang. 2008. Social Network Analysis : Second Edition. California: Sage Publications. Knox, H., Savage, M., Pattison, P. 2006. Social Networks and the study of relations: Networks as Method, metaphor and form. Economy and Society, 35 , 113-140. Ognyanova, K., et al. 2010. Team assembly and scientific collaboration on nanoHub, Sunbelt XXX: International Sunbelt Social Network Conference, Riva del Garda, Trento, Italy. Rogers and Kincaid. 1981. Communication Network : Toward a New Paradigm for Research . New York: The Free Press, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Scott, John. 1991. Social Network Analysis : A handbook , Second Edition. London: Sage Publications. Sulaksana, Jaka. 2011. The Process of Motivational change Process in Farmer ’s Groups : A case Study in West Java Province. Journal of Applied Sciences . volume 11, number 14 , 282 2500-2512, 2011. Takacs, Karoly., Janky, Bela., Flache, Andreas. 2008. Collective Action and Network Change. Social Networks 30 ,177-189. 283 Analisis Keputusan Berkunjung Serta Kepuasan Konsumen Agrowisata Cilangkap The Analysis on Decision to Visit and Customer Satisfaction at Cilangkap Agrotourism Efrizal Saputra 1 , Tuti Karyani 1 , M.Gunardi Judawinata 1 1 Universitas Padjadjaran, Ja tinangor A B S T R A K Kata Kunci: Agrowisata Cilangkap Keputusan Konsumen Kepuasan Konsumen Agrowisata Cilangkap merupakan salah satu agrowisata di Provinsi DKI Jakarta yang memilki potensi untuk dikembangkan. Munculnya persaingan antar agrowisata di Jakarta membuat Agrowisata Cilangkap perlu mengetahui keinginan dan kebutuhan konsumen untuk mempertahankan konsumennya dan penetapan strategi kedepannya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kondisi Agrowisata Cilangkap, proses keputusan berkunjung, dan kepuasan konsumennya. Desain penelitian yang digunakan adalah desain kuantitatif yang didukung desain kualitatif dengan jumlah responden 70 orang. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode analisis deskriptif, analisis crosstab, analisis Importance Performance, dan analisis Customer Satisfaction Index. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa 1 Agrowisata Cilangkap menerapkan sistem free entrance serta memiliki fasilitas kebun bibit dan hidroponik center sebagai daya tarik. Konsumennya dominan laki-laki, berdomisili di Jakarta dan bekerja sebagai pegawai swasta 2 Motivasi konsumen berkunjung yaitu rekreasi dan memutuskan berkunjung ke Agrowisata Cilangkap karena alasan kemudahan mencapai lokasi 3 Konsumen masuk dalam kategori cukup puas terhadap kualitas pelayanan jasa Agrowisata Cilangkap. ABSTRACT Keywords: Cilangkap Agrotourism Consumer Decision Customer Satisfaction Cilangkap Agrotourism is one of agrotourisms in Jakarta which has the potential to be developed. The emergence of competition among agrotourisms in Jakarta makes Cilangkap Agrotourism need to obtain the knowledge of the desires and needs of consumers to retain its customers and to determine the future strategy. This resea rch aims to know the condition of Cilangkap Agrotourism, the decision process to visit, and customer satisfaction. The design of this research is quantitative design and supported by qualitative design with 70 respondents. This resea rch uses descriptive analysis method, crosstab analysis, Importance Performance analysis, and Customer Satisfaction Index analysis. The results show that 1 Cilangkap Agrotourism applies free entrance system and has seed farm facility and hydroponic center as the attraction. The visitors are mainly male, having the domicile in Jakarta and working as private employees 2 Consumers visit motivation is for leisure and the reason to visit because of easy access to the location 3 Visitors are categorized into fairly satisfactory with the service quality of Cilangkap Agrotourism Korespondensi Penulis Alamat e-mail: efrizalputraagmail.com