The process as shown in figure 2 is flexible. It allows an instructional designer to start with whichever element and then move back and forth to the others
steps. However, there is interdependence among the eight elements, and decisions relating to one may affect others.
As quoted by Soekamto, Kemp 1922: 21 explains that developing instructional system is an unbreaking continuity or a cycle. Each step of the
development has a direct relation with an activity, which is called revision. Therefore, teachers and instructional designers can start developing their
instructional system from any point and can go to any direction. This process can possibly happen because an instructional program is regarded as a system in which
its component is interdependent.
b. Borich’s Model
The writer also found other information that was related to the writer’s design instructional activity. Borich’s model gives a big part in considering value as
a part of the instructional design. According to Borich 1996: 111 the instructional model starts with the answer to the following questions:
1 Which aims and goals should they try to achieve?
2 To which learner needs should you direct your interaction?
3 What should you teach and in what ways can you structure the content to
produce maximum learning for instance, by establishing consequences making transition; highlight important points and interweaving themes?
4 How can you orchestrate various teaching methods to meet the objectives
for instance; question and answer, discussion, review and practice?
5 What should Instructional media and materials you use to deliver the
content and assess whether it has been learned? 6
On what basis should you revise the instruction?
For each question, there are many alternatives. Selecting an Instructional goal, organizing content for maximum learning and retention, selecting instructional
methods and material, and assessing the learners, all require planning skills that must reduce the alternatives to the most practical and effective ones. Borich
includes the stages into the “planning process”. Borich applies four stages in designing an instructional material. They are 1996: 114:
1 Gaining knowledge of some inputs,
2 Generating alternatives,
3 Recognizing value assumptions,
4 Revising alternatives.
Briefly, the four stages of this instructional-design plan is shown by the following diagram:
Add new data Expand set of
Revise match About inputs
alternatives as as needed
As needed needed
Figure 2.2. Borich’s Instructional Model Borich, 1996:114
Gain Knowledge of
input to the planning
process goal learning needs
content
i ti
Generate alternatives
from knowledge of
inputs
Select and prioritize goal-
learning need, organization –
method match, and recognize
value
implication
Obtain the feedback from
the learner as to the
consequences of the
match chosen
Gaining Knowledge of some inputs According to Borich 1996: 109, the first stage in the term of instructional
development is gaining knowledge of some input. The four primary inputs to the planning process are stated as follows:
1. Aims and goals, reflected by national and state policies and legislation,
school district curriculum guide, and adapted textbook and materials, 2.
Learner characteristics and individual differences reflected by the learners’ attitude and achievement, personality traits anxiety, learning style, and
self-concept, peer influence, and home and family life. 3.
Knowledge of academic discipline and grade level curriculum, reflected by content organization such as general-to-detailed, simple-to-complex,
abstract-to-concrete, ordering of priorities such as connections and transitions among and between parts, major and minor themes such as
most important and least important, and content-specific facts, rules, concept, and principles
4. Knowledge and teaching methods, reflected by key and helping behaviors
such as lesson clarity, instructional variety, task orientation, and learners’ engagement in the learning process at moderate-to-high rates of success,
pacing mode of presentation, classroom arrangement and selection and use the of text books, media and materials.
Generating Alternatives
Designing materials should determine the appropriate contents and methods to use with the learners Borich 1996: 111. This step includes:
1 Choosing from among different instructional materials to select the learner
characteristic, to which the instruction will be tolerated. 2
Organizing the content, and 3
Selecting teaching method and instructional materials.
Recognizing Value Assumptions
The goals, learning needs, organizations, and methods must be matched with one another Borich 1996: 112. In this step, the goals must be matched with the
learning need, and then both of them must be tied to a specific organizational pattern and instructional arrangement to make the best “goal-learning based on
need-organization-method” match. Borich 1996: 112-113 stated that the
objectives are organized into cognitive behaviors development of intellectual abilities, and skills, affective behaviors development of attitudes, beliefs, and
values, and psychomotor behaviors coordination of physical movements and
bodily performance. One of the most important results of prioritizing the goal-learning based on
need-organization-method matches is that the value assumption will be recognized that such ordering implies. Matching and prioritizing are planning activities that
encourage to actively considering consequences of certain decisions.
Revising Alternatives
This step revising the instructional materials is considered. Feedback from the observation and assessment is an important input to the planning process.
Sensitivity of this data provides the best means of monitoring the consequences of the instructional decision and the most effective means of revising them.
c. Walt Dick’s and Lou Carey’s Model
