Strategies for translating krystal weedon`s dirty words in the casual vacancy.

vii ABSTRACT

Aprilia, Christina. (2016). Strategies for Translating Krystal Weedon’s Dirty Words

in The Casual Vacancy. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education. Sanata Dharma University.

Translating a dirty word is a tricky matter because sometimes it is too taboo to be translated into another language. In the practice, translators employ various translation strategies to translate dirty words. One example of texts that contains a

lot of dirty words is JK Rowling’s novel entitled The Casual Vacancy. Some characters found in the novel often utter dirty words. One of the characters is Krystal Weedon. Therefore, this research is conducted to find out translation strategies used to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words into Bahasa Indonesia.

There were two research problems addressed in the research which were (1)

What are Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The Casual Vacancy? (2) What are translation strategies that are used to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The

Casual Vacancy?

To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted qualitative research by employing content analysis. The research data were dirty words uttered by Krystal Weedon in The Casual Vacancy and its Indonesian version, Perebutan Kursi Kosong. To answer the first question, the researcher identified the dirty words by using theories proposed by Jay (1992), Allan and Burridge (2006), McEnery (2006), and Ljung (2011). To answer the second research question, the researcher

analyzed the strategies to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words by employing

strategies proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), and Baker (1992).

Based on the analyses, the research results show that: 1) there are 18 dirty

words with 76 occurrences found in Krystal Weedon’s speech, 2) based on

compilation of translation strategies employed there are 7 strategies used to

translate dirty words in Krystal Weedon’s speech. Those strategies are borrowing,

literal translation, modulation, functional equivalent, cultural equivalent, compensation, and translation by omission. The researcher also found that there is another strategy employed beyond the proposed ones and therefore is included in other findings.

viii ABSTRAK

Aprilia, Christina. (2016). Strategies for Translating Krystal Weedon’s Dirty Words in The Casual Vacancy. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Menerjemahkan kata kotor merupakan hal yang cukup sulit sebab seringkali suatu kata kotor terlalu tabu untuk diterjemahkan ke dalam suatu bahasa lain. Dalam prakteknya, para penerjemah menggunakan berbagai macam strategi penerjemahan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor. Salah satu teks yang memuat banyak kata kotor adalah novel The Casual Vacancy karya JK Rowling. Beberapa karakter yang ada dalam novel tersebut sering mengucapkan kata kotor, salah satunya adalah Krystal Weedon. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini dilakukan guna menentukan strategi penerjemahan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia.

Ada dua rumusan masalah yang diajukan dalam penelitian ini yakni (1) Apa saja kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy? (2) Apa saja strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy?

Untuk menjawab kedua rumusan masalah, peneliti melakukan penelitian kualitatif dengan analisa konten. Data penelitian berupa kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy dan versi bahasa Indonesianya yakni Perebutan Kursi Kosong. Guna menjawab pertanyaan pertama, peneliti mengidentifikasi kata kotor dengan menggunakan teori dari Jay (1992), Allan dan

Burridge (2006), McEnery (2006), serta Ljung (2011). Sedangkan untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti menganalisa strategi yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon dengan menggunakan strategi penerjemahan yang diajukan oleh Vinay dan Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), serta Baker (1992).

Berdasarkan analisa, hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa: 1) ada 18 macam kata kotor yang ditemukan dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon dengan kemunculan sebanyak 76 kali, 2) berdasarkan gabungan strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan, ada 7 strategi yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon. Strategi tersebut adalah borrowing, literal translation, modulation, functional equivalent, cultural equivalent, compensation,

dan translation by omission. Peneliti juga menemukan bahwa selain gabungan strategi penerjemahan yang diajukan oleh para ahli, ada strategi lain yang digunakan oleh penerjemah dan oleh karenanya peneliti memasukkannya ke dalam hasil temuan yang lain.

STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATING KRYSTAL WEEDON

’S

DIRTY WORDS IN THE CASUAL VACANCY

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Christina Aprilia Student Number: 091214099

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ART EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

i

STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATING KRYSTAL WEEDON

’S

DIRTY WORDS IN THE CASUAL VACANCY

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Christina Aprilia Student Number: 091214099

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ART EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

iv

“

I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.

”

(Philippians 4:13)

“

Every step makes a difference.

Then, look around and watch your step.

Don’t stop, go your way.

”

“

Choice was dangerous:

you had to forgot all other possibilities when you chose.

”

(J.K. Rowling - The Casual Vacancy)

This thesis is dedicated to those who always

shower me with endless love, believe in me,

vii ABSTRACT

Aprilia, Christina. (2016). Strategies for Translating Krystal Weedon’s Dirty

Words in The Casual Vacancy. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education. Sanata Dharma University.

Translating a dirty word is a tricky matter because sometimes it is too taboo to be translated into another language. In the practice, translators employ various translation strategies to translate dirty words. One example of texts that

contains a lot of dirty words is JK Rowling’s novel entitled The Casual Vacancy. Some characters found in the novel often utter dirty words. One of the characters is Krystal Weedon. Therefore, this research is conducted to find out translation strategies used to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words into Bahasa Indonesia.

There were two research problems addressed in the research which were (1) What are Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The Casual Vacancy? (2) What are translation strategies that are used to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in

The Casual Vacancy?

To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted qualitative research by employing content analysis. The research data were dirty words uttered by Krystal Weedon in The Casual Vacancy and its Indonesian version,

Perebutan Kursi Kosong. To answer the first question, the researcher identified the dirty words by using theories proposed by Jay (1992), Allan and Burridge (2006), McEnery (2006), and Ljung (2011). To answer the second research question, the researcher analyzed the strategies to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words by employing strategies proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), and Baker (1992).

Based on the analyses, the research results show that: 1) there are 18 dirty words with 76 occurrences found in Krystal Weedon’s speech, 2) based on compilation of translation strategies employed there are 7 strategies used to translate dirty words in Krystal Weedon’s speech. Those strategies are borrowing, literal translation, modulation, functional equivalent, cultural equivalent, compensation, and translation by omission. The researcher also found that there is another strategy employed beyond the proposed ones and therefore is included in other findings.

viii ABSTRAK

Aprilia, Christina. (2016). Strategies for Translating Krystal Weedon’s Dirty Words in The Casual Vacancy. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Menerjemahkan kata kotor merupakan hal yang cukup sulit sebab seringkali suatu kata kotor terlalu tabu untuk diterjemahkan ke dalam suatu bahasa lain. Dalam prakteknya, para penerjemah menggunakan berbagai macam strategi penerjemahan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor. Salah satu teks yang memuat banyak kata kotor adalah novel The Casual Vacancy karya JK Rowling. Beberapa karakter yang ada dalam novel tersebut sering mengucapkan kata kotor, salah satunya adalah Krystal Weedon. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini dilakukan guna menentukan strategi penerjemahan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia.

Ada dua rumusan masalah yang diajukan dalam penelitian ini yakni (1) Apa saja kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy? (2) Apa saja strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy?

Untuk menjawab kedua rumusan masalah, peneliti melakukan penelitian kualitatif dengan analisa konten. Data penelitian berupa kata kotor yang diucapkan oleh Krystal Weedon dalam The Casual Vacancy dan versi bahasa Indonesianya yakni Perebutan Kursi Kosong. Guna menjawab pertanyaan pertama, peneliti mengidentifikasi kata kotor dengan menggunakan teori dari Jay (1992), Allan dan Burridge (2006), McEnery (2006), serta Ljung (2011). Sedangkan untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti menganalisa strategi yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon

dengan menggunakan strategi penerjemahan yang diajukan oleh Vinay dan

Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), serta Baker (1992).

Berdasarkan analisa, hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa: 1) ada 18 macam kata kotor yang ditemukan dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon dengan kemunculan sebanyak 76 kali, 2) berdasarkan gabungan strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan, ada 7 strategi yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan kata kotor dalam ucapan Krystal Weedon. Strategi tersebut adalah borrowing, literal translation, modulation, functional equivalent, cultural equivalent, compensation,

dan translation by omission. Peneliti juga menemukan bahwa selain gabungan strategi penerjemahan yang diajukan oleh para ahli, ada strategi lain yang digunakan oleh penerjemah dan oleh karenanya peneliti memasukkannya ke dalam hasil temuan yang lain.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for always guiding me in living

my life. I’m so grateful to have them leading my life and showering me with

endless blessings.

I thank Ibu Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd., M.Hum., who has become my thesis advisor. I thank her for the feedback, comments, and advice so that I can improve my thesis. I also thank her as my academic advisor for her time, patience, guidance, support and encouragement during my college life, especially the time when I struggle to finish this thesis.

I thank Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. for the advice, comments, suggestions and corrections. Those motivate me to write the thesis better.

I thank Bapak Paulus Kuswandono, Ph.D as the chairperson of PBI, and all PBI lecturers who have taught and educated me during college life. I thank all PBI staff especially Mbak Danik, who helps me to deal with administration stuffs. I also thank the staff of Sanata Dharma library.

My special thanks are dedicated to Bapak Yulius Mugi Karyono, Ibu

Maria Sri Hartatik, Mas Yohanes Dema Sri Oktafiyan, and Simbah Yustina Harjowiyono. As my family, they have given me endless love, raised me well and supported me. Their love and prayers always strengthen me.

I thank all my friends in campus, especially Rosi, Devi, Hehen, Danik, Awang, Lice, Nda, Sinta, Yogis, Tari, Ajeng, Hana, Chapidh, and Sisca. I thank Septi, Angel, Alex, Titus, Pungki, Wanda, Dion, and Susi as comrades in

x

finishing thesis; the struggle is real and we keep fighting for it till the finish line. I also thank Momon, Dika, Odhile, Mbak Ayu Ganjar, and Cinta, who always support me in finishing my thesis. My sincere gratitude also goes to my friends in Elegy, PPL Depsa ‘12, Golden Lantern, KKN XLV (Jetsuers), OMK, PIA, Paguyuban Lektor Gamping and all my private students. I always enjoy the process and cherish every moment I have.

I also address my gratitude to CNBLUE for producing great music that I listen to since years ago. “다 죽자!!!”

Finally, I thank everyone who knows me and cares about me. Forgive me for not mentioning you one by one. I pray the best for you and I believe that God surely knows your good deeds for me. May his blessing be with you.

xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE ... i APPROVAL PAGES ...ii DEDICATION PAGE ... STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... iv v vi ABSTRACT ...vii

ABSTRAK ...viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... TABLE OF CONTENTS ... LIST OF TABLES ... CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background ... B. Research Problems ... C. Problem Limitation ... D. Research Objectives ... E. Research Benefits... F. Definition of Terms...

ix xi xiv 1 5 6 6 6 7 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description ... 1. Theories of Speech ... a. Speech in a Novel ...

9 9 9

xii

b. Language Variation in Speech ... c. Level of Formality in Speech ... d. Dirty Words ... 2. Theories of Translation ...

a. Definition of Translation ... b. Translation Equivalence ... c. Meaning in Translation... d. Translation Strategies ...

1) Translation Strategies by Vinay and Darbelnet ... 2) Translation Strategies by Newmark ... 3) Translation Strategies by Baker ... B. Theoretical Framework ...

10 11 13 28 29 29 31 32 33 35 39 41 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method ... B. Research Setting... C. Research Subjects ... D. Research Instrument and Data Gathering Technique ... E. Data Analysis Technique ... F. Research Procedure ...

46 47 47 48 51 53 CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS

A. The Discussion of Dirty Words………... ... B. Translation Strategies of Dirty Words ... C. Other Findings ...

56 78 88

xiii

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Conclusions ... B. Recommendations ... REFERENCES ... APPENDICES ...

93 96 97 101

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Level of Formality in Speech According to Newmark ... 12

Table 2.2. McEnery’s Typology ...23

Table 2.3. Ljung’s Typology ... Table 2.4. Dirty Words Themes Proposed by Jay, Allan and Burridge, and Ljung ... Table 2.5. Similarities between McEnery’s Typology and Ljung’s Typology ... 24 42 43 Table 3.1 Blueprint of Identification of Dirty Words Found in Krystal Weedon’s Speech ...49

Table 3.2 Blueprint of Translation Strategies to Translate Dirty Words Found in Krystal Weedon’s Speech ...50

Table 3.3. Example of Identification of Dirty Words ...53

Table 3.4. Example of Translation Strategies to Translate Dirty Words ...53

Table 4.1. Dirty Words Found in Krystal Weedon’s Speech ...56

Table 4.2. The Occurrences of Translation Strategies ...79

Table 4.3. Examples of Omission Strategy ...80

Table 4.4. Examples of Cultural Equivalent Strategy ...81

Table 4.5. Examples of Functional Equivalent Strategy ...85

Table 4.6. Examples of Modulation Strategy...86

Table 4.7. Examples of Compensation Strategy ...87

xv

Table 4.9. Example of Literal Strategy ...89 Table 4.10. Other Findings ...89

1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter serves as an introduction to the research. It is divided into six parts. This intends for aiding the readers in understanding the research taken, namely research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

Dirty words are commonly found in daily life. It can be said that all languages have dirty words. However, to define dirty words is quite tricky. Dirty words may cover swear words, curse words, four-letter words, epithets, obscenities, profanity, taboo language, slang terms etc. Even though these words can be heard in daily conversation, scenes in a movie, and even written in novel, the study of dirty words is rarely done in school since they are ‘dirty’, related to vulgar and taboo thing. As an effect, students knows the dirty words from outside the school and sometimes use them without knowing the meanings and when to use them. Based on this fact, the research of dirty words and the translations of them is important to be done. The research of dirty words and the translations is needed to help the students understand dirty words further such as what belong to dirty words, the meaning of them, and their usages in a context.

To conduct this research, the researcher chooses a novel. The researcher chooses a literature work as it is a representation of language or people culture and tradition. The intended novel is The Casual Vacancy, an adult novel written

by J. K. Rowling. The novel itself was published worldwide by the Little, Brown Book Group in September 2012. In November 2012, the novel was translated into Bahasa Indonesia as Perebutan Kursi Kosong by three translators and was published by Penerbit Qanita. The novel, which has been adapted on-screen as three-episode miniseries aired in the United Kingdom (February-March 2015) and in the United States (April-May 2015), tells the readers about the conflicts and problems faced by the citizens after the death of Barry Fairbrother, a Parish Councillor in a fictive town called Pagford. The death causes a vacancy in a seat on the council and arises conflict before the election for his successor takes place. Beside political theme, The Casual Vacancy covers a range of social issues such as rape, drug use, domestic abuse, racism, and suicide as noted by Losowsky in his article entitled “The Casual Vacancy's Review: JK Rowling's Long-Awaited New Book” published by Huffington Post on September 26th, 2012.

Aside from its plot, The Casual Vacancy receives many criticisms due to its content that is full of foul language and features the C-word and F-word hundreds of times. Sebastian Shakespeare who writes in Daily Mail Columnist section mentions that Rowling’s novel has what children call ‘bad grown-up words’ every other page. John Granger who is a well-known writer even takes his time to count dirty words found in The Casual Vacancy. He notes that fuck and its variations are dirty words dominating the novel by 140 times appearances, followed by shit (34 times), bloody (23 times), bitch (16 times), shag (12 times),

This research, thus, is going to focus on a dirty words found in character’s speech and the translation of the dirty words. The researcher chooses to focus to a character’s speech as it is one of the ways to characterize character. Murphy (1972) says that through speech, the author can give the readers an insight about the character (p. 164). It is also a key element of character development. If it is done right, it can impact a strong sense of realism about the character. Thus, by reading the characters’ speech, the readers are expected to know who and how the characters are. Further, speech or language spoken in a novel has same function like found in real life which is a means of communication for people to interact with other. Sapir (1956, p.69), as quoted by Bassnett (2002, p. 21), states that language is a guide to social reality and it becomes the medium for human being to express and to communicate in the society. Thus, through speech each character expresses their thought and communicates with other characters. By employing speech in which dirty words are found, the researcher expects to understand the use of the dirty words in the context.

Based on reading and reviewing done, the researcher decides to analyze dirty words found in Krystal Weedon’s speech. The reasons why the researcher chooses her are because she is one of the main characters who has a foul mouth and frequently uses dirty words during some shocking exchanges. She is depicted as an out-of-control sixteen years old girl who suffers a traumatic childhood. She lives in poverty with her mother, Terri, who is a prostitute and heroin addict and her younger brother, Robbie, in their dirty house at Foley Road in the Fields. Krystal has a gang whose members share the same characteristics with her such as

habits and language. She is also described developing personal relationship with Stuart ‘Fats’ Wall. With the portrayal mentioned above, thus, it is interesting to discuss dirty words found in Krystal Weedon’s speech.

The translation of the dirty words is also going to be discussed. Translation is defined as an attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another (Newmark, 1988, p. 7). Lefevere (1992, p. 17) describes since language is also the expression and the repository of a culture, many of the words in a language are inextricably bound up with that culture and therefore very hard to transfer in their totality to another language. Thus, Nida and Taber (1982, p. 12) suggest that the translators must be familiar with both languages in order to find out the closest natural equivalent of source language (SL) message and reproduce it in target language (TL). Nababan (1999, p. 26) states that there are two important factors in translation. Those are linguistic factors that cover words, phrases, clauses and sentences, and non-linguistics factors that cover the cultural knowledge on both source and target language culture. In this research, the translation of dirty words are those that will be discussed. Lefevere (1992, p. 58) notes that in different cultures a specific use of language is considered appropriate (or inappropriate) in a specific situation. Thus, it is interesting to see how the translators play their roles to “render the meaning of the text into other languages in the way that the author intended the text” as noted by Newmark (1988). They have to make sure that the translations of dirty words are similar, or at least analogous in different cultures. If they are not, Lefevere (1992, p. 17) says that “the illocutionary power

of the source text will not be heightened by a mere literal translation of the words on the page in what amounts to a cultural vacuum.”

By conducting this research, the researcher expects that the findings of this research will be beneficial for both practical and academical fields. Since this research focuses on dirty words and translation, the findings may be beneficial for Sociolinguistics and Translation course in English Language Education Study Program (ELESP). In relation to the Sociolinguistics course, this research will provide material related to language variation and level of formality in speech which uses dirty words. The discussions of themes and functions of the dirty words based on the context are expected to give ELESP students some examples about the dirty words usage in the utterances. While in relation to the Translation course, this research is expected to give contribution on how to take dirty words using translation strategies and what considerations need to take in the process. B. Research Problems

Based on the research background, the problems of this research are formulated as follow:

1. What are Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The Casual Vacancy?

2. What are translation strategies that are used to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The Casual Vacancy?

C. Problem Limitation

This research focuses on the speech of Krystal Weedon, a character found in The Casual Vacancy. To be more specific, it deals with dirty words uttered when Krystal speaks with her interlocutors. The researcher develops the research to find out the translation strategies used by the translators to translate dirty words found in Krystal’s speech. This research employed translation strategies proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), and Baker (1992) to analyze the manner in which the translators translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words. D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are:

1. To find out Krystal Weedon’s dirty words in The Casual Vacancy.

2. To find out translation strategies employed by the translators to translate Krystal Weedon’s dirty words.

E. Research Benefits

This research is expected to have contribution for: 1. English Teachers

English teachers would know better about dirty words so they could explain dirty words to their students properly. Further, the teacher would also know how translation strategies play roles in translating a character’s speech. 2. Students

Students would be able to learn about and distinguish kinds and functions of dirty words that occur in daily life based on the examples found in the novel

are expected to know the situation in which they can utter the dirty words. Through this research, the students would also learn how translation strategies play roles in translating the dirty words into Bahasa Indonesia.

3. Translators

The research findings will give translators, especially who work for English-Bahasa Indonesia translation, more considerations in taking appropriate translation strategies to translate dirty words.

4. For Further Research

This research will contribute to translation of literary work, specifically the translation of dirty words. The research can be used or referred for further researches especially those which deal with translation of dirty words.

F. Definition of Terms

In this part, the researcher is going to give some definitions of terms used in this research. The terms which are going to be described are strategies in translating, dirty words, and Krystal Weedon of The Casual Vacancy.

1. Strategies for Translating

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003, p. 67) define strategies in translating or translation strategies as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses or maybe the whole sentences if the translated parts cannot separate into smaller unit to be translated. There are some experts propose their translation strategies, but in this research only translation strategies proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Newmark (1988), and Baker (1992) are employed.

2. Dirty Words

Dirty words are words that may cause offence. These words have different labels given by scholars and experts. Jay (1992) calls them as offensive words, and taboo words; Allan and Burridge (2006) call them as forbidden words; while Fägersten (2012) calls them as swear words. Therefore, in this research what belong to dirty words are those that are considered offensive, insulted, and forbidden to be said in formal condition like meeting or casual conversation. 3. The Casual Vacancy

The Casual Vacancy is an adult novel written by J.K. Rowling. It tells the readers about the conflicts and problems faced by the citizens after the death of Barry Fairbrother, a Parish Councillor. It was published worldwide by the Little, Brown Book Group in September 2012. In this research, The Casual Vacancy acts as research source, in which the researcher took the data from to answer the first formulated problem about dirty words. It also acts as Source Text in relation to second formulated problem about translation strategies to translate dirty words.

4. Perebutan Kursi Kosong

Perebutan Kursi Kosong is the Indonesian version of The Casual Vacancy

which is translated by three translators(Esti A. Budihabsari, Andityas Prabantoro, and Rini Nurul Badariah). It was published by Penerbit Qanita in November 2012. This novel consists of 593 pages, being longer than the original novel that consists of 503 pages. In this research, Perebutan Kursi Kosong acts as Target Text in relation to the second formulated problem about translation strategies to translate dirty words.

9 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The contents of this chapter are to explain the theories related to the conduct of this research. This chapter consists of two parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the theories of speech and theories of translation. The theoretical framework provides theories to solve the research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

This section discusses two major parts of theoretical description, namely theories of speech and theories of translation. The theories are used to enhance the

researcher’s knowledge about the topic discussed and solve the research

problems.

1. Theories of Speech

In this part, the researcher discusses the theories of speech as the research is dealing with speech, especially dirty words uttered in the speech. Therefore, the theories cover speech in a novel, language variation in speech, level of formality in speech, and dirty words in English.

a. Speech in a Novel

The author’s relationship to his characters is god-like (Harvey, 1965, p.

32). He is the one who creates characters, setting, and story in a novel. Character is “the person, in a dramatic or narrative work, endowed with moral and

dispositional qualities that are expressed in what they say—the dialogue—and what they do—the action (Abrams, 1981, p. 23)”. To create character, the author goes through a process named characterization. Characterization is how the author describes the character in a work. According to Murphy (1972), there are nine ways in which an author attempts to make his characters understandable to and come alive for his readers. Those are personal description, characters as seen by another, speech, past life, conversation of others, reactions, direct comment,

thoughts, and mannerism. As this research only focuses on the language spoken by a character, thus only speech will be discussed further.

Speech is important to characterize a character. Through what the character says, the author can give the readers an insight about the character (Murphy, 1972, p. 164). Whenever the character speaks, whenever he is in conversation with another, whenever he puts forward an opinion, he is giving us some clues to his character. Further, speech which tries to imitate everyday spontaneous speech will “serve to advance the plot, and in certain writers [...] will carry a large share of this function, its more customary role is to contribute to the presentation and development of character (Page, 1973, p. 14). Therefore, speech also has important role in building the story.

b. Language Variation in Speech

Language variation or language variety is “a sub-set of formal and/or

substantial features which correlates with a particular type of socio-situational feature (Catford, 1965, p. 84)”. Thus, standard and non-standard English are categorized as varieties in English. Yule (1996, p. 227) explains that standard

English is usually used in the printed media (newspapers and books), associated with education, and used in the broadcasting world and other public contexts. Instead of the spoken language, it is more easily described in terms of the written language (vocabulary, spelling and grammar). In the other hand, non-standard English is related to people who have low statuses in society. Therefore, it is usually labeled as “bad” or “vulgar” language while standard English is often labeled as “good” English.

Hatim and Mason (1990) explain that there are two dimensions recognized which contribute to language variation. Those are user-related varieties and use-related varieties. The earlier deals with the user in a particular language event: who the speaker is. It differs from person to person primarily in the phonic medium. The latter is related to the use to which a user puts language. Use-related varieties differ from each other primarily in language form (e.g. grammar and lexis). Since it has relation with an individual’s background, author can employ l anguage variation to assert the characters in his novel through their speeches. c. Level of Formality in Speech

Languages have different speech styles or standards to synchronize word choice with the given formality (Jay, 2003). Different situations and people call for different level of formality. Both Joos (1967) and Nida (1975, p. 175) have classified level of formality into five levels which are frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate style. Frozen style is the most formal style and it can be found in biblical verse, prayers, and law. Formal style according to Nida (1975) is used between persons who are unknown to each other in a formal setting such as

public auditorium. It is used for most academic and scientific publishing. Whereas consultative style according to Joos (1967) is a standard form of communication. Nida (1975) adds that consultative style occurs between people who do not know each other and talk about something neutral. It can be found in conversation between strangers or doctor and patient. Another style is casual style in which it is used by people who know each other such as peers and friends. In this style, it is normal to find slang, vulgarities, and colloquialisms. The last style proposed by Joos (1967) and Nida (1975) is intimate style. It is used by people who are well acquainted and who have shared many linguistic experiences so they may have private vocabularies which are unintelligible for outsiders (Nida, 1975).

Related to level of formality in speech, Newmark (1988, p. 31) has further detail. He describes that levels of formality in speech range from officialese, official, formal, informal, colloquial, slang, to taboo. Newmark provides examples for each level as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Level of Formality in Speech According to Newmark Officialese The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically

prohibited in this establishment.

Official The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.

Formal You are requested no to consume food in this establishment. Neutral Eating is not allowed here.

Informal Please don’t eat here.

Colloquial You can’t feed your face here. Slang Lay off the nosh.

Taboo Lay off the fucking nosh.

It can be seen from examples in Table 2.1 that they talk about the same idea which is prohibiting one to eat in that place. However the degrees of formality range and it can be seen from the choice of vocabulary. Take examples from

officialese style and slang style. Officialese style employs scientific terms such as

nutriments referring to food while slang style employs nosh, a slang term for food. From the Table 2.1, it can also be seen that both slang and taboo style have similiar pattern but the addition of word fucking in the sentence makes slang style changes into taboo style as fucking is offensive and categorized as taboo word. d. Dirty Words

Terminology dirty word is quite tricky since there are many different labels proposed by scholars and experts. Expert such as Jay (1992, p. 1) uses the term

cursing in his Cursing in America to refer to “all sorts of dirty word usage”

though he knows that it might be “somewhat inexact.” Then later in his other studies, he refers what he calls previously as cursing as offensive words (see Do Offensive Words Harm People, 2009) and taboo words (see The Utility and Ubiquity of Taboo Words, 2009). While another expert such as McEnery (see

Swearing in English, 2006) proposes the terms bad language and swearing to refer the same notion. Other experts may use swear words or forbidden words as well (see Fägersten, 2012; Allan and Burridge, 2006). Noted by Fägersten (2012, p. 1) the term that she calls swear words have many alias such as bad words, curse words, cuss words, dirty words, four-letter words, expletives, epithets, obscenities, profanity, blasphemy, bawdy language, foul language, rude language, vulgar language, or taboo language. Kaye and Sapolsky (2009, p. 431), as cited by Fägersten (2012, p. 5), admit that the use of variety of broad terms interchangeably is “to avoid repetition” and seemingly no other reason than that.

What language and words are perceived as dirty, foul or bawdy in a culture having connection with what is considered taboo in the culture itself. Like taboos, the condemnation of some words as dirty and inappropriate is a social construct. Thus, the concept of taboo is necessary to discuss. According to Allan and Burridge (2006, p. 1) there are several topics of taboos including bodies and their effluvia; the organs and acts of sex, micturition and defecation; diseases, death and killing; naming, addressing, touching and viewing persons and sacred beings, objects and places; food gathering, preparation and consumption They consider that some taboos are specific for a certain culture, but many are almost universal.

Those taboo topics construct dirty words and people use dirty words for many different purposes. Jay (1992, p. 2-9) divides them into ten categories which are cursing, profanity, blasphemy, taboo, obscenity, vulgarity, slang, epithets, insults and slurs, and scatology.

Cursing, literally, means calling upon divine or supernatural power to send injury upon someone. According to Jay (p. 2), the intent of cursing is to invoke harm on another person through the use of certain word or phrase which are imbued with power granted through religious or social demarcation. The examples of religious curses are damn you, goddamn you, to hell with you. Nowadays, those religious curses may be replaced by expressions like screw you

or go fuck yourself. Such curses are now expressing hostility or anger and their denotative meaning is not really important. Other curses that are non-religious but still wish harm to the target person can be found in “eat shit and die” and “I hope you break your neck.”

Jay also interprets religious taboos in his profanity and blasphemy

category. There is an assumption that profanity and blasphemy mean the same thing but if one examine the intent of each speech form, he will see that they are different. According to Jay (1992, 3) profanity is related to the secular or indifferent (to religion). Thus, to be profane means to be secular or behaving outside the customs of religious belief and to be ignorant or intolerant of the guidelines of a particular religious order. An example of profanity would be a word or phrase which seeks not to denigrate God, religion or holy affairs but would be based more on ignorance of or indifference to these matters. The

examples are like “Jesus Christ, I’m hungry!” and “For the love of Christ, get off

the phone!” Whereas, blasphemy aims directly at the church and obtains scorn via the power of the church. Therefore, blasphemy would appear as a direct attack on

religious figures re religious authority. The examples of blasphemy are “Screw the

Pope!” and “Shit on what it says in the Bible!” However, most theories do not

make distinction between these two.

Another category proposed by Jay is taboo. Jay (1992, p. 4) argues that a taboo operates to suppress or inhibit certain behavior, thoughts, or in this case, speech. Thus, taboo words are sanctioned or restricted on both institutional and individual levels under the assumption that some harm will occur if a taboo word is spoken (Jay, 2009, p. 153). Further, Jay (2009, p. 154) describes that taboos in English are placed primarily on sexual references (blow job, cunt) and on those that are considered profane or blasphemous (goddamn, Jesus Christ). Taboo extend to scatological referents and disgusting objects (shit, crap, douche bag);

some animal names (bitch, pig, ass); ethnic-racial-gender slurs (nigger, fag, dago); insulting references to perceived psychological, physical, or social deviations (retard, wimp, lard ass); ancestral allusions (son of a bitch, bastard); substandard vulgar terms (fart face, on the rag); and offensive slang (cluster fuck, tit run). Jay (1992, p. 10-15) explains that taboo words are used for their emotional impact on people rather than for their literal or denotative interpretation. In messages, taboo words are more likely to be interpreted connotatively by listeners, rather than denotatively. For example, most listeners

would interpret the utterance “My job is fucked up” as there was something wrong

with the work.

The next category is obscenity. According to Jay (1992, p. 5), the definition of obscenity is not fixed but dynamic because the law changes or evolves over time in response to changes in society and the courts’ decision. Another expert, Henderson (1991, p. 2) defines obscenity as “verbal reference to areas of human activity or parts of the human body that are protected by certain taboos agreed upon by prevailing social custom and subject to emotional aversion

or inhibition”. Thus, in Henderson’s view obscenity is related to sexual and

excremental areas.

To call a word obscene means that it cannot be used freely as it is subject to restriction. In order to be obscene, Henderson (idem) explains that such reference must be made by an explicit expression that is itself subject to the same inhibitions as the thing it describes. Jay (idem) notes that taboo restricts what speakers do, obscenity functions to protect listeners from harmful language.

Obscene words are considered the most offensive and are rarely used in public media. The examples are fuck, motherfucker, cocksucker, cunt, or tits that have gained universal restriction. The obscene word “fuck” although restricted in media is one of the most frequently recorded dirty words in public, especially in the form of an expletive.

The category of vulgarity in Jay’s view is rather general. In his opinion,

vulgarity means the language of the common person, “the person in the street”, or

the unsophisticated, unsocialized, or under-educated so that it do not necessarily have to be obscene or taboo but just reflect the crudeness of street language. Words such as snot, slut, crap, kiss my ass, puke are not really offensive but maybe considered impolite or inappropriate.

Another category proposed by Jay is slang. According Jay (1992, p. 6), slang is a vocabulary that is developed in certain sub-groups (teenagers, musicians, soldiers, drug users, or athletes) for ease of communication. Swan (1996, p. 22) defines slang as a word, expressions or special use of language found mainly in very informal speech, especially in the usage of particular groups of people. Thus, slang code serves to identify members of the group, while misuse or ignorance of it identifies non-members, which may be especially important in illegal transactions (Jay, idem).

Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010, p. 303) state that slang is sometimes referred to as vernacular and some forms of slang fall under the term

colloquialism, referring to informal conversational styles of language. However, as noted by Eble (1996, p. 19) slang must be distinguished from regionalism or

dialect words, jargon, profanity and obscenity, colloquialism, and cant or argot although slang shares some characteristics with each of these and can overlap them. Akmaijan et al (idem) state that there are some salient features of slang which are 1) being part of casual, informal style of language use so that it has traditionally carried a negative connotation and it is often perceived as a “low” or

“vulgar” form of language, 2) being rapidly changing—slang terms enter a

language rapidly but after a few years or even months they fall out of fashion, 3) being associated with a particular social group so that one can speak teenage slang, prison slang, and so on. Dumas and Lighter (1978, p. 14-16) propose four identifying criteria for slang which are 1) the presence of slang will markedly lower the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing, 2) the use of slang implies the user’s special familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such special familiarity and use the term, 3) being a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility, 4) being used in place of the well-known conventional synonym, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. Although slang is not really a category of dirty words, the two often go hand in hand. The reason is they both are features of substandard language and people are like to use them in the same context as explained above.

Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams (2003, p. 473) state that besides introducing new words by recombining old words into new meanings, slang also introduces

entirely new words such as barf, flub, and pooped. Jay (1992, p. 7) notes that sometimes slang terms become popular and are used in standard language so that sub-group members have to invent a new code. However, other terms are never integrated into standard dialects due to their offensiveness to public. The examples of slang terms are pimp, cherry, john.

The next category is epithet. Jay (1992, p. 7) notes that epithets are brief but forceful bursts of emotional language. The term epithet itself can be misleading since in syntax the term epithet is used for adjective or phrases describing a characteristics of a person or thing. Other theorists usually call it as swearing. Ljung (2011, p. 4) proposes criteria for what constitute swearing or in

Jay’s term epithet as the following:

1. Swearing is the use of utterances containing taboo words 2. The taboo words are used with non-literal meaning

3. Many utterances that constitute swearing are subject to severe lexical, phrasal and syntactic constraints which suggest that most swearing qualifies as formulaic language

4. Swearing is emotive language: its main function is to reflect, or seem to reflect, the speaker’s feelings and attitudes.

Thus, it can be concluded that epithet or swearing is using taboo word in an utterance without referring to its literal meaning to express the speaker’s feeling and emotion. Therefore, it is commonly found that people do swearing when they hit themselves with a hammer or feel hostile when there is a man crowds in a supermarket check-out line; they want to express their feelings and

emotions toward the incidents. It is in line with Jay’s arguments (1992, p. 7) that epithet is yelled at a selected wrongdoer or a person who does something stupid or frustrating (in case of a man crowds the check-out line) and is uttered serving no corrective purpose (as with the targeted use) but mainly serving to reduce the anger level of the speaker (in case of hitting self with a hammer). The examples of epithet as noted by Jay are shit, damn, hell, son of a bitch, goddamn it, fuck you, fuck off, piss off, Jesus Christ.

Jay also proposes insults and slurs. In his view (1992, p. 8), bothare verbal attacks on other people. They do not necessarily gain their powers from religious sanctions or social taboos but by denoting real or imagined characteristics of the target. Insults may denote the physical, mental, or psychological qualities of the target whereas slurs may be racial, ethnic, or social in nature and may indicate the stereotyping or prejudice of the speaker. Both function to hurt the person directly through the particular word or phrase. Jay (idem) also notes that there are insults using animal imagery such as pig, dog, bitch, son of a bitch and there are insults based on social deviations such as whore, slut, bastard, fag, queer. Children’s

insults are commonly based on abnormal physical, psychological, or social characteristics such as fatty, four eyes, spaz, weirdo, fag, and wimp. While ethnic and racial slurs such as honkey, dago, nigger, chink, pollack are spoken derogatorily to members of the intended ethnic or race group. Even though insults and slurs are primarily meant to hurt the addressee, they can also be used jokingly or as terms of endearment like found in nigger spoken among African Americans and bitch spoken among girl friends.

The last category proposed by Jay is scatology and it is more semantic than pragmatic. According to Jay (1992, p. 9) scatology is the study of excrement; interest in or the treatment of obscene matters. Thus, scatological terms refer to human waste products and processes. Since scatological references are about feces and elimination they appear as poop, turd, crap, shit, piss, piss off, fart. Some people say that only the vulgar would use scatological terms, when a more refined euphemism or technical term could be substituted.

According to Jay (1992, p. 9), classifications of the dirty words into categories of usage or semantic taxonomies allows people interested in language to define the different types of reference or meaning that dirty words employ. It can be seen that he combines several different approaches so that some of the categories being sociological, some semantic and a few examining the function of dirty words in use. Nevertheless, these few are interesting since in translation it is more important to preserve the function of the dirty words than its semantic field. For example a swearing like shit can be appropriately translated as sialan because they serve the same purposes in the two languages. The classifications also present that some dirty words can be cross-categorized or being used in more than one way. However, one has to look at the entire sentence and speech context to see how the word was used. Jay gives examples words such as son of a bitch, shit,

and Jesus Christ can belong to several categories. Son of a bitch may be an insult or an epithet, shit could be used as scatology, insult, or epithet, and Jesus Christ

could be an epithet or profanity. To know what the exact meaning of the word, one cannot look at the word alone but must consider how the speaker uses it.

In order to be able to preserve the function of the dirty word and the exact meaning of the word, the first distinction made is to decide whether the dirty words are used denotatively or figuratively. Denotative or literal meaning is the actual meaning of a word. For example in a sentence like He is fucking her, the word fuck is used denotatively meaning a sexual act and thus is essential to the understanding of the sentence. Whereas in a sentence like He is fucking crazy, the word fuck is used for emphasizing the word stupid so that can be left out without harming the understanding of the sentence. In the translation, dirty word used literally cannot be omitted but may be replaced by a less offensive dirty word. If the target language lacks an equivalent dirty word, it is possible that the translator employs a neutral word to express the denotative meaning.

In contrast to literal use, dirty words can be used figuratively. Presented in

Jay’s categories, it can be seen that words such as bitch in an insult, fuck you in a

curse, and shit in an epithet/swearing are used figuratively. In these cases, the connotative meaning of the word is more important that its denotative meaning. Even when being used figuratively, dirty words can replace ordinary words or form phrases which can function as many different parts of speech and constitute the basic meaning of sentence. The examples of such use are phrasal verbs like found in fuck something up or fuck somebody over. The translator then should pay attention to this matter by transferring the figurative meaning of the word correctly or finding a vulgar expression with the same meaning in the target language (TL) though it is not based in the same semantic field.

Based on the scheme given, dirty words, or in McEnery’s context known as bad language can serve for different labels. Therefore, McEnery proposes a typology of bad language words based on functional term. Table 2.1 shows the categorization proposed by McEnery (2006, p. 27).

Table 2.2. McEnery’s Typology

Code Description Example

PredNeg predicate negative “the film is shit”

AdvB adverbial booster “Fucking marvellous”

Curse Curse “Fuck you!/me!/him!it!”

Dest destinational usage “Fuck off!” “He fucked off”

EmphAdv emphatic adverb “He fucking did it” “in the fucking car” Figurtv figurative extension “to fuck about” Gen general expletive “(Oh) Fuck!”

Idiom idiomatic/stereotyped phrase “fuck all!” “give a fuck”

Literal literal usage denoting taboo referent “We fucked”

Image image based on literal meaning “kick shit out of”

PremNeg premodifying intensifying negative adjective

“the fucking idiot.” Pron pronominal form with undefined

referent

“got shit to do” Personal personal insult referring to defined

entity

“You fuck”

“That fuck”

Reclaimed reclaimed usage – no negative intent Niggers/Niggaz as used by African American rappers Oath religious oath for emphasis “by God”

Unc Unclassifiable due to insufficient context

McEnery’s categories appear to be defined primarily according to syntactic

and pragmatic criteria so that he explains how a dirty word in that category is distinguished by its function or use. Take the word fuck found in Curse, Dest, and Gen, and Literal categories as the example. The same word fuck, which is most likely to be a verb, serves for different categories. In Curse category, it can be seen that there is a clear insult intended in phrase fuck you with a very clear target

for the word (you). Word fuck in phrasal verb fuck off belongs to Dest category, not only the intention to some degree is to insult but also a demand being made that the target go away. The word fuck belongs to Gen utterance is used as an expression of general anger, annoyance or frustration. While in the case of Literal category, the word fuck does not have intention to insult, merely an intent to describe an act of coitus.

However Ljung (2011: 28), who focuses on study of swearing, notes that some examples such as the utterance Kick the shit out of someone may fall into

Image and Idiom category in McEnery’s typology. This is caused by basing the

categories on grammatical, pragmatic and/or semantic criteria. Therefore, he presents another typology. His categorization scheme features a distinction between functions and themes, where “the functions are the uses that the swearing constructions are put to by the swearers, while the themes are the different taboo

areas that these constructions draw on” (Ljung, 2011, p. 29). Ljung’s typology is

presented in Table 2.3.

Based on Table 2.3, the functions fall into two major subgroups, viz. the stand-alones and the slot fillers and a third smaller functional category which is replacive swearing. The stand-alones are swearing constructions that function as utterances of their own. Some of them are speech acts (illocutionary acts) such as the oaths and the curses, others have a less marked illocutionary character such as the expletive interjections expressing anger, surprise, pain and other feeling.

Table 2.3. Ljung’s Typology Functions Stand-alone functions Expletive interjections Oaths Curses

Affirmation and contradiction Unfriendly suggestions

Ritual insults Name-calling

Slot fillers

Adverbial/adjectival intensifier Adjectives of dislike

Emphasis Modal adverbials Anaphoric use of epithets

Noun supports Replacive swearing

Themes

The religious/supernatural theme The scatological theme

The sex organ theme The sexual activities theme The mother (family) name

Minor themes (ancestors, animals, death, disease, prostitution, etc). The following are the descriptions of stand-alone functions as presented in Table 2.3. The first stand-alone function is expletive interjection. It primarily serves as outlets for the speaker’s reactions to different mishaps and disappointments (Ljung, 2011, p. 30). The examples for this function are Shit!, Fuck!, Oh my God!.

The next stand-alone functions are oath and curse. According to Ljung, both are the two oldest forms of swearing (2011, p. 97). He states that oath originally functioned to swear by something or somebody to back up the claims made by the speaker by taking God or some venerable being as witness that the claim is true. Therefore, oaths are typically realized by “the preposition by

followed by name of a higher being, as in By God, By Christ, or as constructions based on the frame For ... sake(s), as in For heaven’s sake (Ljung, 2011, p. 102). Ljung note that curse involves an intension “to invoke a supernatural power to

inflict harm or punishment on someone or something”. In the past, curses have religious reference as in May the devil take you! but today, curses more often occur in abbreviated forms and often based on other themes, as in Fuck you!, I’ll

be damned! (ibid., 2011, p. 31-32). Both oath and curse have been proposed in McEnery’s typology (2006) presented in Table 2.2. In the preceding paragraphs, it can also be seen that Jay (1992) has already discussed curse as one of his categories of dirty words.

The next stand-alone function is affirmation and contradiction. Ljung (2011, p. 32) notes certain swearing expression may express contradiction and affirmation of the preceding utterance. However, contradiction is far more common than affirmation like reply of utterance “The lock is broken.” may take forms in “Fuck/Bugger/The hell it is.”

Another stand-alone function is unfriendly suggestion. Ljung (2011, p 32) argues that it is used to express aggression directed at somebody and are often used in dialogue to indicate the speaker’s reaction to what is said. The examples include Fuck off!, Go to hell!, Kiss my ass!.

Ljung also notes that there is ritual insult. It is usually all-male affair and connected to the ‘mother theme’ so that the expressions used refer to alleged sexual exploits involving somebody’s mother or even sister. The examples are

Your Mother and Your Mother’s. Besides using ‘mother theme’, Ljung also notes

that there is name-calling function used to express the speaker’s opinion of the

pejoratives and other epithets, not to confuse with Jay’s epithet though. The examples include (you) retard/cunt/bastard.

The second function is the slot filler. As the name indicates, the slot fillers are examples of swearing that serve to make up longer strings. Ljung (2011, p. 30) explains that they range from traditional degree modification such as bloody cold, damned quickly to constructions that are more difficult to analyze as in

absobloodylutely. The slot fillers are described in the following paragraphs.

Adverbial/adjectival intensifier is a slot filler that expresses a high degree of a following adjective or adverb. The examples cover You are so bloody lucky

and They drove damn fast. However, Ljung notes that it is frequently impossible to distinguish clearly between expletives used as intensifiers and the same expletives used as emphasizers.

Another slot filer function is adjective of dislike. It is to indicate that the speaker dislikes the referent of the following noun. Sometimes this function is hard to distinguish from other meanings and is frequently inextricably linked to the function of emphasis. The examples are He’s a bloody fool, I hate that fucking man. Whereas emphasis is also tends to be realized by adjectives but it does not signify gradation or dislike. Instead, it serves to emphasize or attract attention to the associated item as in What the hell is that?, You don’t have to tell me every

bloody time! Emphasis may also take the form of infixation in a word as in

Absobloodylutely, Infuckingcredible.

The next slot filler is modal adverbials but Ljung does not define this concretely. However, it can be deduced from his description and examples that

they are disjuncts expressing modality. The examples are No you bloody can’t

copy, I bloody well drank my beer, They fucking bought one drink between them.

Anaphoric use of epithets is another slot filler function that according to Ljung refers to swearwords used in the same way as personal pronouns. He illustrates it with example Tell the bastard to mind his own business! as an answer to the question What am I going to tell Steve?

The last slot filler function is noun support in which epithets like bastard, motherfucker lose their negative charge and function as a neutral predicate, and an adjective provides meaning to the sentence. Ljung gives examples that John is boring and Philip is hard-working may also be rendered as John is a boring son of a bitch and Philip is a hard-working bastard.

The third function is replacive swearing. Ljung implies that the term is applicable for utterances containing a swear word whose meaning can be interpreted in multiple non-literal ways. The example of such use is I’ve lost the

bugger, where bugger can refer to “an object ot person that the speaker can no longer find” (Ljung, 2011, p. 167).

2. Theories of Translation

In this part, the researcher discusses the theories of translation used in the research. The theories cover definition of translation, translation equivalence, meaning in translation, and translation strategies.

a. Definition of Translation

Meetham and Hudson (1973, p. 713), as cited by Bell (1997, p. 6), define translation as “the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a

representation of an equivalent text in a second language.” Bell himself in his

book ‘Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice’ (1997, p. 5) defines translation as the expression in target language of what has been expressed in source language, preserving semantics and stylistics equivalence.

b. Translation Equivalence

Equivalence is an important aspect in a translation. Newmark (1988, p. 48) states that in the communicative translation of vocative text, equivalent effect is essential as it is the criterion by which the effectiveness and therefore the value is to be assessed. Equivalence happens when there are equivalent items in specific source text-target text pairs and contexts (Koller, 1979, as cited in Munday, 2008, p. 47). When a message is transferred from the source language to target language, the translator is also dealing with two different cultures at the same time. Translation equivalence becomes a transfer of the message from the source culture to the target culture and a pragmatic/semantic or functionally oriented approach to translation. Thus, translation equivalence serves as the bridge between the source language and the target language.

There are experts who distinguish translation equivalence. Popovic, as cited by Bassnett (1991, p. 25), distinguishes translation equivalence into four types which are linguistic equivalence, paradigmatic equivalence, stylistic (translational) equivalence, and textual (syntagmatic) equivalence.

Linguistic equivalence is where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation. Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of ‘the elements of paradigmatic expressive axis’, i.e. elements of grammar. Stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is

‘functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an

expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning.’ Textual (syntagmatic)

equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape.

While Nida and Taber (1964) distinguish two types of equivalences which are formal and dynamic. Formal equivalence ‘focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content’. It consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. However, there are not always formal equivalents between the two languages. Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where the relationship between the receiver and the message should be the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message. Here, the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same effect on the target culture readers as the original wording did upon the source text readers.

Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which ‘replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording’ (Kenny, 1998, p. 342). They also suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the TL text. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, equivalence is therefore

the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds.

c. Meaning in Translation

Nababan (1999, p. 47), quoting Nida (1975, p. 1), states that a word can have several different meaning. The meaning of a word is not only determined by its position in a sentence but also kind of discipline that uses the word. It is commonly found that situational and cultural contexts influence the meaning of a word. In the process of translating, the translator does not only focus on transferring the meaning of a word but also transferring the message. Nababan (2003, p. 48-51) lists five meanings in translation as the following:

Acccording to Nababan (1999, p. 48), lexical meaning refers to the meaning of a word that is found in a dictionary apart from its context. For example, the word bad has these six meanings in the dictionary: jahat, buruk, jelek, susah, tidak enak, busuk. To know which meaning is equal to word bad in a translation, it is suggested to read the whole sentence.

Grammatical meaning is the opposite of lexical meaning. Grammatical meaning is the relation between language elements in a bigger scope; like the relation of a word with other words in a phrase or a clause. The word can means

kaleng or mengalengkan depends on its position in a sentence. In He kicks the can hard, the word can is a noun and acts as object of the sentence but the word can

as found in They can the fish is a verb and it functions as predicate of the sentence.

According to Kridalaksana (1984, p. 120), as cited by Nababan (1999, p.

49), contextual and situational meaning is “hubungan antara ujaran dan situasi di

mana ujaran itu dipakai”. In other words, contextual meaning is the meaning of a

word related to the situation in which the language is being used. Nababan gives

example of the use of English utterance “Good morning!” said by an employer

toward his employee that can be translated as “Keluar!” seeing the context that

the employee always comes late to the office.

Textual meaning is related to the content of a text or a discourse. The meaning of a word can be different according to kind of texts. Take the example of word morphology; in biology text, morphology is a branch of biology that studies form and structure of animal and plants while in linguistics text, it is a branch that studies forms of words.

According to Nababan (1999, p. 50), socio-cultural meaning is closely related to socio-cultural aspect of the language user. In Batak Toba language for example, the word marhusip is related to marriage tradition. If it is translated literally into Bahasa Indonesia, the word means berbisik. However in Batak Toba language, marhusip has wider and deeper meaning than berbisik. Therefore, it is suggested that the translator keeps the word marhusip as it is in his translation and provides the readers annotation of the word.

d. Translation Strategies

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003, p. 67) define translation strategies as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses or maybe the whole sentences if the translated parts cannot be separated into smaller unit to be translated. Newmark

106 Case

No. Source Text Target Text

Translation Strategy 1 “I DI’N’ DO NOTHIN’, YOU PRICK!” (p.

32)

“AKU NGGAK NGAPA-NGAPAIN,

KAMPRET!” (p. 42) Cultural equivalent

2

“Your ’usband said sumthin’ abou’ Mister Fairbrother, right, an’ I couldn’t hear what he

was saying, right, so Nikki tole me, and I

couldn’t fucking—” (p. 42)

“Suamimu bilang sesuatu tentang Mr. Fairbrother,

kan, trus Nikki ngasih tahu aku, dan brengsek, aku nggak—” (p. 54)

Omission

3 “—couldn’t believe it, right, an’ I shouted but never laughed! I never fuck—” (p. 42)

“—nggak percaya, dan aku teriak, tapi nggak

ketawa! Sumpah aku nggak—” (p. 54) Omission

4 “I tole your fuckin’‘usband—” (p. 42) “Aku udah bilang ke suami brengsekmu—” (p. 55) Cultural equivalent 5 “I told ’im I never laughed, I told ’im! An’ he’s

still gave me fucking detention!” (p. 43)

“Aku udah bilang sama dia aku nggak ketawa, aku

udah bilang! Dan si brengsek itu masih

menghukumku!” (p. 55)

Omission 6 “He won’t change his fuck—” (p. 43) “Omong kosong! Dia nggak akan ngubah—” (p. 56) Omission

7 “Our crew’ll be fucked now,” (p. 44) “Mampus, deh, tim kami sekarang,” (p. 57) Cultural equivalent 8a “_{yer ou’ the fuckin’ clinic again!”}You stupid fuckin’ junkie bitch, they’ll kick

(p. 103)

“Dasar perempuan jalang pecandu! Bodoh! Mereka bakal ngusir kamu dari klinik sialan itu lagi!” (p.

128)

Omission

8b You stupid fuckin’ junkie _{ou’ the fuckin’ clinic again!”}bitch, they’ll kick yer

(p. 103) “Dasar perempuan jalang pecandu! Bodoh! ...” (p. 128)

Cultural equivalent

8c You stupid fuckin’ junkie bitch, they’ll kick yer _{ou’ the} fuckin’ clinic again!” (p. 103)

“... Bodoh! Mereka bakal ngusir kamu dari klinik

107 9a

“You fuckin’ look after fer a fuckin’ change

then, you useless fuckin’ smackhead cow!” (p. 103)

“Kalau gitu, coba sekali-kali kau yang urus dia, dasar

kepala sapi gak berguna!” (p. 128) Omission 9b

“You fuckin’ look after fer a fuckin’ change

then, you useless fuckin’ smackhead cow!” (p. 103)

“Kalau gitu, coba sekali-kali kau yang urus dia, dasar

kepala sapi gak berguna!” (p. 128) Omission

9c

“You fuckin’ look after fer a fuckin’ change

then, you useless fuckin’ smackhead cow!” (p. 103)

Kalau gitu, coba sekali-kali kau yang urus dia, dasar

kepala sapi gak berguna!” (p. 128) Omission

9d

“You fuckin’ look after fer a fuckin’ change

then, you useless fuckin’ smackhead cow!” (p. 103)

Kalau gitu, coba sekali-kali kau yang urus dia, dasar

kepala sapi gak berguna!” (p. 128) Literal translation 10 “You fuckin’,” (p. 109) “Brengsek kau!” (p. 136) Cultural equivalent 11 “You fuckin’stupid,” (p. 109) “Dasar bodoh!” (p. 136) Omission

12a “They’ll kick you out the _{you stupid fuckin’ bitch!”} fuckin’ clinic again, (p. 110)

“Mereka akan menendang bokongmu keluar dari

klinik sialan lagi, dasar perempuan bodoh!” (p. 136) Cultural equivalent 12b They’ll kick you out the fuckin’ clinic again,

you stupid fuckin’bitch!” (p. 110)

“Mereka akan menendang bokongmu keluar dari

klinik sialan lagi, dasar perempuan bodoh!” (p. 136) Omission

12c They’ll kick you out the fuckin’ clinic again, _{you stupid fuckin’} bitch!” (p. 110)

“Mereka akan menendang bokongmu keluar dari

klinik sialan lagi, dasar perempuan bodoh!” (p. 136) Functional equivalent 13 “You fuckin’calm down,” (p. 110) “Tenang saja sendiri, brengsek,” (p. 136) Compensation

14 “So ’e missed fuckin’ nursery,” (p. 110) “Oke, dia nggak ke playgroup,” (p. 137) Omission 15 “Tha’s norra fuckin’crime.” (p. 110) “Trus emang napa? Itu bukan kejahatan kok.” (p.

137) Omission

16 “I took ‘im outta the _{now, I toldja!”} fuckin’ nappy, ’e’s pants (p. 110)

“Aku udah lepasin popoknya, dia pake celana

108

17 “Don’ fuckin’ take him away, then!” (p. 110) “Kalau gitu, jangan ambil dia!” (p. 137) Omission 18a

“Another fuckin’ case review, is it? Why’djer need one, though? Why’djer need one? He’s all righ’, I’m lookin’ after—fuckin’ shurrup!” (p. 111)

“Peninjauan ulang kasus sialan lagi ya? Buat apa? Buat apa? Dia baik-baik saja. Aku ngurus—diam!” (p. 138)

Cultural equivalent

18b

“Another fuckin’ case review, is it? Why’djer need one, though? Why’djer need one? He’s all righ’, I’m lookin’ after—fuckin’ shurrup!” (p. 111)

“Peninjauan ulang kasus sialan lagi ya? Buat apa?

Buat apa? Dia baik-baik saja. Aku ngurus—diam!” (p. 138)

Omission

19 “Why ain’ I? I’m his fuckin’ sister, ain’ I?” (p.

112) “Kenapa nggak? Aku kakaknya, kan?” (p. 138) Omission

20 “Yeah, because Obbo turned up, an’ she never _{fuckin’ says no to ’im!”} (p. 112)

“Iya, karena Obbo muncul dan dia nggak pernah bisa

bilang tidak ke bajingan itu!” (p. 139) Omission

21a “Fuckin’ tosser,” (p. 112) “Pengedar sialan,” (p. 139) Cultural equivalent 21b “Fuckin’ tosser,” (p. 112) “Pengedar sialan,” (p. 139) -

22 “Why didn’ yeh jus’ tell ’im fuckin’ no?” (p.

112) “Kenapa kau nggak nolak dia? (p. 139) Omission

23a

And then Krystal, bringing up the rear of the group with Sukhvinder, had called her a silly Paki bitch. (p. 148)

Lalu Krystal, yang berjalan paling belakang bersama

Sukhvinder, menyebutnya Paki bego. (p. 181) Borrowing 23b

And then Krystal, bringing up the rear of the group with Sukhvinder, had called her a silly Paki bitch. (p. 148)

Lalu Krystal, yang berjalan paling belakang bersama

Sukhvinder, menyebutnya Paki bego. (p. 181) Omission 24a “Fuck off, you cheeky bastard!” (p. 244) “Sialan kau, brengsek!” (p. 292) -

24b “Fuck off, you cheeky bastard!” (p. 244) “Sialan kau, brengsek!” (p. 292) Cultural equivalent 25 “Soft as shite an’ twice as runny,” (p. 245) “Lemah dan lembek seperti ingus,” (p. 294) Omission

109

26a “Tha’ fuckin’tosser.” (p. 248) “Ah, si bloon itu.” (p. 297) Omission

26b “Tha’ fuckin’ tosser.” (p. 248) “Ah, si bloon itu.” (p. 297) Cultural equivalent 27 “’E’s a fucker,” (p. 249) “Dia keparat,” (p. 297) Cultural equivalent 28 “’Ow the fuck do I know? I weren’t there,” (p.

249)

“Mana aku tahu? Aku nggak liat,” jawab Krystal. (p.

298) Omission

29 “Yeah, it were shit, weren’t it?” (p. 249) “Iya, payah tuh.” (p. 298) Functional equivalent 30 “I know, I nearly pissed meself,” (p. 249) Aku tahu, aku ampir ngompol gara-gara itu,” (p.

298) Cultural equivalent

31 “Cooper’s a twat, innee?” (p. 250) “Cooper itu brengsek, ya kan?” (p. 299) Cultural equivalent

32 “Fuck,” (p. 254) “Sialan,” (p. 304) Cultural equivalent

33 “Your fucking mum killed my Nan!” (p. 304) “Ibu brengsekmu membunuh Nan-ku!” (p. 361) Cultural equivalent 34a “_{gonna get fucking done and so are you!”}Your fucking mum killed my Nan! She’s

(p. 304)

“Ibu brengsekmu membunuh Nan-ku! Dia akan

tamat, begitu juga kau!” (p. 361) Cultural equivalent

34b “Your fucking mum killed my Nan! She’s gonna get fucking done and so are you!” (p. 304)

“Ibu brengsekmu membunuh Nan-ku! Dia akan

tamat, begitu juga kau!” (p. 361) Omission 35 “Don’ go fuckin’ usin’,” (p. 321) “Jangan teler!” (p. 380) Omission 36 “He ain’ your fuckin’ boy,” (p. 324) “Dia bukan anakmu, brengsek,” (p. 383) Omission 37 “Fuck off. She don’ wan’ nuthin’. Tell ’im,” (p.

324)

“Minggat! Ibuku nggak butuh apa-apa. Bilang ke

dia,” (p. 383) Cultural equivalent

38 “No, ’e _{nuthin’,”}fuckin’ ain’t. Tell ’im. She don’ wan’ (p. 324)

“Orang sialan ini nggak mungkin cuma itu maunya.

Bilang ke dia. Ibuku nggak butuh apa-apa,” (p. 383) Omission

39 “Fuck off,” (p. 324) “Menyingkir!” (p. 383) Functional equivalent 40 “It’s bollocks,” (p. 324) “Dia bohong,” (p. 383) Modulation

41 “Fuck off,” (p. 325) “Pergi,” (p. 384) Functional equivalent

110

43 “Fuck—” (p. 325) “Breng—” (p. 385) Cultural equivalent

44 “No—fuck—no!” (p. 325) “Jangan, bajingan, jangan!” (p. 385) -

45 “He jus’—he jus’ fucked me.” (p. 326) “Dia—dia perkosa aku.” (p. 386) Modulation 46 “It fuckin’ ain’t!” (p. 379) “Bukan, brengsek!” (p. 446) Compensation 47 “If you start _{Robbie away.”}fuckin’usin’ again,” “They’ll take

(p. 407)

“Kalau kau makai lagi,” “mereka bakal ambil

Robbie.” (p. 477) Omission

48 “You’re fuckin’ doin’ it to him!” (p. 407) “Kau yang bikin dia nangis!” (p. 447) Omission 49

“An’ anyway, that doctor didn’ do nuthin’ to

Nana Cath, that’s all jus’ Cheryl an’ them talking shit!” (p. 407)

“Lagian, dokter itu nggak ngapa-ngapain Nana Cath,

itu cuma karangan Cheryl dan yang lain!” (p. 478) Functional equivalent 50 “I fuckin’will!” (p. 407) “Aku emang mau pergi!” (p. 478) Functional equivalent 51a

“An’ I’ll take Robbie an’ all, an’ you can stay here an’ fuckin’ screw Obbo an’ make another one!” (p. 407)

“Aku bawa Robbie! Kau tinggal aja di sini, jadi

piaraan Obbo dan bikin anak lagi!” (p. 478) Omission

51b

“An’ I’ll take Robbie an’ all, an’ you can stay here an’ fuckin’ screw Obbo an’ make another

one!” (p. 407)

“Aku bawa Robbie! Kau tinggal aja di sini, jadi

piaraan Obbo dan bikin anak lagi!” (p. 478) -

52 “Silly bitch,” (p. 438) “Pelacur sialan,” (p. 516) Cultural equivalent 53 “An’ wha’ thefuck’s that?” (p. 438) “Dan apaan itu?” (p. 517) Functional equivalent 54 “Yeh’ve fuckin’—” (p.439) “Kamu ma—” (p. 517) Omission

55 “Fuckin’shurrup, Robbie! Shurrup!” (p. 443) “Diem, Robbie! Diem kataku!” (p. 522) Omission 56

“Fuckin’—go an’ wai’ by the bench, an’ I’ll

gerra drink in a minute! Go ’way, Robbie!” (p. 459)

“Brengsek—pergi! Tunggu di bangku, bentar lagi

aku kasih minum! Pergi, Robbie!” (p. 541) Cultural equivalent

111 58 “Course ’e’s not, does ’e look like a _{buildin’?”} fuckin’

(p. 501)

“Jelas nggak, apa dia kelihatan kayak gedung?” (p.

590) Omission

59 “S’pose your shit smells of roses, does it?” (p.

501) “Tai kalian juga wangi kayak mawar, ya?” (p. 590) Cultural equivalent

60

“I’ll let yer ’ave another look later, if yeh want. I know yeh’re all lezzers,’ ‘stuck in ’ere together

with no boys!” (p. 502)

“’Ntar kuliatin lagi, kalau kalian mau. Aku tau kalian

bosen,” “di sini gak ada cowok!” (p. 592) -

61 “Fuckin’watch it, Hol,” (p. 502) “Ati-ati, Hol,” (p. 592) Omission 62 “Bunch o’ muff munchers. Le’s do ’em!” (p.

502)

“Cuma banyak omong. Ayo, hajar mereka!” (p.