Translation Strategies Theories of Translation
36 The next strategy, naturalization, has two processes. First, it adapts the SL
word to the normal pronunciation, then it adapts the SL word to the normal morphology or the word-forms of the TL Newmark, 1988, p. 82.
Newmark also introduces the readers to equivalent strategies such as cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, and descriptive equivalent. Cultural
equivalent allows the translator to translate the SL’s cultural words into the TL’s
cultural words Newmark, 1988, p. 82-83. The translation uses are limited, since they are not accurate. However, they have greater pragmatic effect than culturally
neutral terms, e.g. the term café-pause French is translated into English phrase coffee break, the noun phrase Jaksa Agung Bahasa Indonesia is translated into
English as Attorney General Suryawinata and Hariyanto, 2003, p. 72. Another strategy is functional equivalent which is a strategy that requires the use of a
culture-free word when is applied to cultural words. Therefore, it neutralizes or generalizes the SL word and become the most accurate way of translating as it
deculturalizes a cultural word Newmark, 1988, p. 83. While descriptive equivalent gives description to find an equivalence of SL words to TL and
sometimes combines it with function, e.g. samurai is described as ‘the Japanese
aristocracy from the eleventh to nineteenth century’ which function is ‘to provide o
fficers and administrators’ Newmark, 1988, p. 83-84. The next strategy is synonymy. It is used in the sense of a near TL
equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not exist. This strategy is used for an SL word where there is no clear one-to-one
equivalent and the word is not important in the text, in particular for adjectives or
37 adverbs of quality. A synonym is only appropriate where literal translation is not
possible and because the word is not important enough for componential analysis in the text Newmark, 1988, p. 84. Componential analysis itself is a strategy
proposed by Newmark in which the basic process is to compare an SL word with a TL which has a similar meaning but not an obvious equivalent by demonstrating
their common and then differing sense components Newmark, 1988, p. 114. Generally, the SL word has a more specific meaning compared to the TL word so
that the translator has to add one or two TL sense components to the corresponding TL word in order to produce a closer approximation.
Newmark’s translation strategies that are similar to Vinay and Darbelnet’s strategies cover calque, transposition, and modulation
. However, in Newmark’s term calque is called through translation. Normally, it should be used only when
the terms are already recognized. The most obvious examples of through- translations are the names of international organizations, which are known by
their acronyms such as UNESCO and FAO Newmark, 1988, p. 84. While transposition
in Newmark’s view involves a change in grammar from SL to TL 1988, p. 85
; compared to Vinay and Darbelnet’s transposition that replaces one word class with another. Newmark also includes modulation in his strategies in
which it is based on Vinay and Dar belnet’s.
Newmark also proposes strategies such as reduction, expansion, paraphrase and compensation. Reduction and expansion are used for SL text
which is impossible to be literally translated into TL so that it is reduced or added. An example of reduction is the translation of SL adjective of substance plus
38 general noun, e.g. science linguistique is translated into linguistics; while in
expansion, usually adjective, adverb plus past participle, or present participle plus object is added to translate SL text, e.g. belebend is translated into life-giving.
While paraphrase according to Newmark 1988, p. 90 is an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text and is used in an ‘anonymous’
text when it is poorly written or has important implications and omissions. Compensation is used when loss of meaning, sound-effect, metaphor or pragmatic
effect in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in a contiguous sentence Newmark, 1988, p. 90.
When single strategy cannot help translator translating SL word, Newmark propose combination of two, three or even four strategies. He calls these strategies
as couplets, triplets, and quadruplets 1988, p. 91. These strategies are common for translating cultural words. Besides, the translator can also put notes or supply
additional information in his translation by using notes, additions, or glosses Newmark, 1988, p. 91. Additional information that the translator may have to
add to his version is normally cultural accounting for difference between SL and TL culture, technical relating to the topic or linguistic explaining wayward use
of words and being dependent on the requirement of his readership. The additional information itself may take various forms such as within the text, at the
bottom of page, at the end of chapter or at the end of the book glossary.
39
3 Translation Strategies by Baker
Baker discussed several strategies commonly used by professional translators when dealing with various types of non-equivalence. The strategies are
described in the following. The first strategy is translation by a more general word superordinate.
According to Baker 1992, p. 26, this is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non-equivalence. This strategy uses the general word
or superordinate word to translate the expression in the SL which is lack of specific sense in the TL expression. Baker illustrates this strategy by giving an
example in which Arabic translator translates the word shampoo with lavar that means wash in English. In this case, wash is considered as a more general word.
The next strategy is translation by a more neutralless expressive word. What Baker means by this strategy is illustrated in the translation of the word
mumble into Italian. In English, mumble suggests confusion or embarrassment but its nearest Italian equivalent, mugugnare, tends to suggest dissatisfaction rather
than embarrassment or confusion. Therefore, the translator decides to translate mumble into suggerisce that means suggest. It is done possibly to avoid conveying
the wrong expressive meaning Baker, 1992, p. 28-29. Baker also proposes strategy that is similar to Vinay and Darbelnet’s
adaptation and Newmark’s cultural equivalent which is translation by cultural substitution. According to Baker 1992, p. 31-32, cultural substitution replaces a
culture-specific item or expression in the SL with item or expression in the TL that does not have exactly the same meaning but have more or less the same
40 impact to the target reader so that the reader can identify a concept of something
familiar and appealing. Another strategy proposed is translation using a loan word or loan word
plus explanation. The strategy is used in dealing with culture specific items, modern concept, and buzz words Baker, 1992, p. 34. When the word is repeated
several times in the text, this strategy is very useful. Once explained, the loan word can be used on its own and the reader can understand it without being
distracted by the explanations. Not only does Newmark introduce the concept of paraphrase in translation,
but also Baker. Even she proposes two strategies using paraphrase which are translation by paraphrase using a related word and translation by paraphrase
using unrelated word. This first paraphrase strategy tends to be used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in the target language but in a
different form, and when the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text is significantly higher than would be natural in the target language
Baker, 1992, p. 37. While the latter can be applied if the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the target language. It is based on
modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the meaning of the source item, particularly if the item in question is semantically complex Baker, 1992, p.
38. Baker also proposes translation by omission strategy. This strategy can be
applied if the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy
41 explanations Baker, 1992, p.40. Besides omitting particular item, Baker 1992,
p. 42 also suggests that translation can be done by illustration. This strategy is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to
a physical entity which can be illustrated.