N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
7.3.3. N uisance
During its lifetime, the female housefly is capable of producing up to 1000 eggs, and the resulting larvae will develop into adults in about 7–10 days Larsen Thomsen, 1940. The potential for a population explosion under the proper conditions is obvious. It is dif- ficult to quantify the emotional effects of large numbers of flies on people already living under stress and expecting a fly-free environment. But people have been known to vacate their homes and apartments simply because of huge fly populations. In many parts of the world, urban development has extended into farming areas, resulting in significant increases in housefly populations in communities adjacent to farms, even though the source of flies may be up to 6.4 km away Winpisinger et al., 2005. Flies can cause tre- mendous problems in these situations, by restricting outdoor recreational activities, par- ticularly those that involve cooking or consumption of food Thomas Skoda, 1993; Winpisinger et al., 2005. In a number of studies in the Middle East J. Hogsette et al., unpublished observations, 1997, large numbers of flies were produced in expected and unexpected circumstances. In the Gaza Strip, large numbers of houseflies were produced in the towns and cities from lack of adequate storage, collection and disposal systems for garbage. Although public health did not seem to be adversely affected by the fly populations, reduction in fly populations would constitute an improvement in the quality of life. In many areas, flies had access to raw sewage, so the potential for contamination and transmission of disease was high. Farmers in Israel and Jordan significantly contributed to the increase in the numbers of flies at different times of the year by their farming practices. Housefly popu- lations were at times unbearable in both countries as a result. To reduce the populations, one village in Israel used a large barrier of box traps. Although thousands of flies were trapped daily, results were mainly psychological. The nuisance factor was the main com- plaint, and diseases were probably not transmitted, because the flies were not contami- nated in the harsh terrain. In Europe and the United States, flies have long been considered to be a public health threat. This is based mainly on their past notoriety as a disease vector, as well as on their habit of developing in and feeding on manures and other undesirable organic wastes. In the late 19 th century, a few flies were considered to be a normal part of every house- hold life. But by the early 20 th century, flies had been incriminated as disease vectors and Flies 216 including poliovirus, coxsackievirus and enteroviruses Gregorio et al., 1972; Greenberg, 1973; Graczyk et al., 2001. Food exposed to flies in homes of patients with poliomyelitis in areas where epidemics occurred acquired enough poliovirus to produce a non-paraly- tic infection or asymptomatic carrier state when consumed by chimpanzees Ward, Melnick Horstmann, 1945. Melnick 1951 stated that sampled flies frequently tested positive for poliovirus, which was the only seasonal factor that could be correlated with summer epidemics of poliomyelitis. Flies, moreover, are capable of transferring the eggs and cysts of various cestodes and nematodes Olsen, 1998, particularly hookworms and ascarids. Furthermore, hamsters have been experimentally infected with scrapie, a disease classified as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, after eating extracts of the larvae and pupae of the flesh fly Sarcophaga carnaria that fed on scrapie-infected hamster brains Post et al., 1999. Field transmission of the scrapie agent, however, has not been verified. As stated in section 7.2, on “Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America”, the stable fly is quite inefficient at transmitting disease under field conditions Greenberg, 1971; Zumpt, 1973; Tarry, Bernal Edwards, 1991 and the major concern is the pain associated with its bites and the few people who are allergic to the proteins injected by the fly. Nevertheless, there are presumptions that biting flies are involved in the transmission of Lyme disease Luger, 1990. Most of the diseases caused by flies in urban areas are intestinal in nature, and victims may suffer a series of flu-like symptoms, including elevated temperature, diarrhoea and vomiting. Treatment varies, depending on the causative agent and finding a physician who is knowledgeable in this area of disease management is of utmost importance. Some bacteria, such as E. coli serotype 0157:H7, are extremely pathogenic and may cause death.7.3.2. Myiasis
Parts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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