Costs, control and management of infestations
13.7. Public health impact
In Canada and the United States, local governments, physicians and others typically report cases of rodent-related illness to provincial or state public health officials who monitor the incidences of some of these diseases and report them periodically to agen- cies at the national level. In the United States, the CDC is responsible for the national surveillance of reportable diseases, which includes a few of the rodent- or rabbit-related diseases given in Table 13.2 Hopkins et al., 2005. Unfortunately, incidence data for many of the remaining diseases associated with these animals are unavailable, making it diffi- cult to assess their impact on human populations. Similar data also appear to be unavai- lable for Europe.13.8. Costs, control and management of infestations
Although a few rodent- or lagomorph-related diseases, such as LB, are viewed as signi- ficant health problems, many others rarely come to the attention of people living in a par- ticular area, which typically results in their believing that these diseases have little impact on their health or economic well-being. Such perceptions are often shared by policy- makers who see few reasons to use limited resources to prevent or control these often rare diseases or the rodent or lagomorph infestations associated with them. However, when Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs 454 cialized and are completely dependent on a very restricted range of environmental condi- tions for their survival. However, many other rodent species can be classified as genera- lists and are quite adaptable, being able to survive in isolated patches of remaining habi- tat or in disturbed areas. In still other instances, landscape disturbances might actually provide new habitats for opportunistic rodent species. Such a process has been observed over the past 3–4 decades in plague-endemic regions of the south-western United States Barnes, 1982; Gage, Ostfeld Olson, 1995; Gage, 1998; Gage et al., 2000. Much of the development that has occurred in this area has involved the conversion of ranches and forests into semi-rural or suburban areas dotted with new home sites. Despite encroaching urbanization, these sites often retain significant amounts of native vegetation and thus remain attractive to a variety of non-commensal rodent spe- cies, including rock squirrels, which are important hosts and sources of Y. pestis infection for the flea species O. montana that is the primary vector of human plague in the United States. Building rock walls around properties or piling rocks or other debris near new home sites further increases rock squirrel populations Barnes, 1982. Problems with perido- mestic rock squirrel populations are complicated further by residents who improperly dispose of garbage or allow these rodents to have access to spilled pet foods, seeds at bird feeders or other edible items. The risk of LB in peridomestic environments also can be affected by landscaping choices intended to make backyards or other sites more attrac- tive Maupin et al., 1991; Piesman, 2002. Abandonment of agricultural lands in the north-eastern United States has resulted in landscapes characterized by various stages of succession. Initially, weeds and other inva- sive species colonize sites, but eventually other types of vegetation come to predominate, including the native tree species found in the climax forests of this region. Although aban- doned agricultural lands might eventually return to a fully forested state, such sites are often converted to low-density housing, creating semi-rural or suburban environments that offer an excellent mosaic of habitats for non-commensal rodents and their ectopa- rasites. This abandonment and redevelopment of farm lands in the north-eastern United States has also been accompanied by recolonization of the region by white-tailed deer, which act as hosts for the adult stages of the deer tick vector of LB Piesman, 2002. As tick-infested deer help to re-establish the deer tick populations in this region, local popu- lations of white-footed mice and certain other species are able to act as competent reser- voirs for infecting immature deer ticks with the agent that causes LB B. burgdorferi. Although evidence suggests that B. burgdorferi has been present in this region for at least many decades, the landscape changes noted above have resulted, over the past 20 years, in the emergence of Lyme disease as the most commonly reported vector-borne disease in the United States. Recreational use of highly heterogeneous woodlands also is repor- ted to be associated with an increased risk of LB in Europe Gray, 1999. Many of these sites are secondary growth woodlands, and people have altered these environments exten- sively. Table 13.2. Incidence of nationally reportable rodent- or lagomorph-associated diseases in the United States Disease Incidence 1993–2003 Years for which incidence per 100 000 population a data were available in the interval 1993–2003 HGA HGE 0.14 1998–2003 Encephalitismeningitis: arboviral, California serogroup 0.04 1995–2003 primarily La Crosse virus infections Powassan viral encephalitis 0.01 2002–2003 Giardiasis 7.45 2002–2003 HPS 0.01 2000–2003 Leptospirosis 0.02 1993–1994 Lyme disease 5.86 1993–2003 Plague 0.01 1993–2003 RMSF 0.24 1993–2003 Tularaemia 0.05 1993–1994; 2000–2003 a Average for years in which data were available. Note. HGA: human granulocytic anaplasmosis; HGE: human granulocytic ehrlichiosis; HPS: hantaviral pulmonary syndrome; RMSF: Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Source: Hopkins et al. 2005. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 45713.9. Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
Parts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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