Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
9.7.2. Physical removal
Physical methods for eliminating body lice are currently the norm for treating people and were the only method of treatment during the First World War, when most soldiers experienced infestation at some point Nuttall, 1918. Methods employed now include replacing all clothing and at the same time, killing the insects and their eggs, by using extreme environments – that is, various forms of application of heat or cold. Studies have shown that temperatures above 50°C sustained for more than 20 minutes are sufficient to kill all lice and their eggs Leeson, 1941; Buxton, 1947, so adequate control of infesta- tions can be achieved with limited equipment and normal domestic hot-water washing systems, by laundering clothes or exposing them to heat – for example, in a hot-air dryer. If desired, items of clothing that cannot be washed could be dry-cleaned, although cost may make this inappropriate in most circumstances.9.7.2. Pesticides
In most high- and medium-income countries, neurotoxic pesticides have been the mains- tream method for eliminating louse infestations. In many cases, these have been used inappropriately, so that in the past lice have readily developed resistance. Resistance to pesticides is now potentially one of the main factors that govern approaches to louse Human body lice 294 1985. The distribution of LBRF is similar to that of typhus, but the number of cases is greater, particularly in East Africa Gratz, 1985. Recent serological investigations have shown that trench fever, thought to have died out in the 1940s, is still actively transmitted and more widespread than previously believed Jackson Spach, 1996; Raoult Roux, 1999. Although the infection may produce high fever and debilitation, such as in the million or so combatants infected during the First World War, many low-grade infections may have passed unnoticed –as influenza-like fever of unknown origin Jackson Spach, 1996; Fournier et al, 2002. Trench fever has not figured highly in the index of suspicion of physicians investigating such episodes, especially in the absence of lice. Trench fever now appears to be disseminated in the homeless of many nations and has probably spread into the wider population, as louse faeces are dispersed from the clothing of infested individuals and come into contact with mucosae of uninfested people Drancourt et al., 1995; Jackson Spach, 1996; Raoult Roux, 1999. Also, head lice may now be vectors of these infections, bringing with them the possibility that children could become infected Sasaki et al., 2006. So with increased human mobility and more-intense and longer-term infestations, there is a hypothetical risk of an increase in disease transmission in all geographical areas of high- and middle- income countries.9.5. Socioeconomic influences
The general increase of affluence throughout Europe and North America has resulted in an overall decline in body louse infestations, as most people now have access to facilities to launder or change their clothing regularly. Data on the distribution of lice within and between communities are sparse, as is documentation on the impact of social welfare and economics on the prevalence of lice. This is an area of study that has been neglected due to difficulties in obtaining funding for studies that are large enough to be meaningful and due to the triumph of political correctness over common sense in fostering the pre- tence that socioeconomic status plays no role in either catching lice or the ability to eli- minate infestations. However, the study by Willems and colleagues 2005 gave the first clear indication of this link in modern times and confirms the retrospective analysis conducted by Lindsay 1993. The other evidence that exists suggests that the prevalence of all lice in many communities has increased since the beginning of the 1990s and shows no sign of abatement Downs, Harvey Kennedy, 1999; Meinking, 1999; Raoult Roux, 1999.9.6. Conducive environmental conditions
Sucking lice are host-specific, obligate ectoparasites that depend on their hosts for food, water, warmth and habitat. Lice may accidentally leave their hosts on a temporary basis, but unless they are able to re-colonize within a short period they die from cumulative dehydration. They do not infest other mammals and there is no reservoir or long-term harbourage off the body where lice can hide. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 297 to transmit disease. The widespread distribution of homeless people with positive sero- logy for trench fever indicates that this disease is probably transmitted regularly when lousy individuals come in contact with and are exposed to infected louse faeces Jackson Spach, 1996. This also indicates that infestation with body lice may be widespread and that, as there is no mechanism for monitoring the infestation due to the withdrawal of appropriate environmental health services, the level of lousiness in society may be consi- derably higher than previously thought. It is unlikely that epidemic typhus or LBRF could enter Europe or North America under current conditions, although individual cases, resulting from travel to endemic areas, could arise; in those circumstances, howe- ver, onward transmission would be highly unlikely. Unforeseen social disruptions in the future, however, could alter this position.9.9. Conclusions
Parts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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