Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
199
port plans and programmes to prevent and eradicate fire ant incursions. While preparation for fire ant eradication is prudent for at-risk areas, improvements in
fire ant IPM, including pesticide application, are needed for well-established fire ant infestations. Products with active ingredients that have long residual activity can provide
control of fire ants for over nine months. These products are contact insecticides that require thorough coverage of an area to maintain control reductions of more than 90.
Inadequate coverage and the proliferation of similar products albeit less expensive that may not have the same efficacy can lead to reapplications and greater exposure to pesti-
cides. Fire ant baits, however, typically result in the application of less active ingredient per unit area than residual contact treatments Drees, 2003. While the residual activity
of fire ant baits is limited, as a tool for controlling these ants these baits are efficient and environmentally compatible. Integrating the efficient use of both baits and long-lasting
residual contact insecticides, relative to the risk management of fire ant stings and expo- sure to pesticides, would improve fire ant IPM.
6.7.2. Pharaoh ants
With regard to Pharaoh ants, the first step towards control is physical exclusion. Access to a building, especially to such sensitive facilities as hospitals, must be reduced to a mini-
mum by internal and external structural measures such as sealing of cracks and crevices and moving possible garden harbourages away from a building. Also, regular monito-
ring and targeted insecticide application by specialists is fundamental and should be com- pulsory.
6.7.3. Research
Research on the dynamics of the reinfestation of treated areas and how to significantly delay reinfestation of sensitive areas such as hospitals and preschool playgrounds by fire
ants and Pharaoh ants, while minimizing pesticide use, is needed to develop improved control strategies.
Pharaoh ants and fire ants
198
4. Evaluation and adjustment of control programme.
Mapping areas where fire ant infes- tations are located and recording pre- and post-treatment population levels allow the
control programme to be evaluated. Monitoring population levels at times when the potential for stings is high such as the outdoor recreational season will provide an
indication of a treatment’s efficacy and timeliness. Population levels can be based on nest densities, the percentage of lures with fire ants, the number of sting incidents or
complaints, or a combination of these indicators. Maintaining site-specific historical records of treatment regimes, dates and weather conditions during treatment applica-
tions and population levels will allow for more precise adjustments to control pro- grammes.
The examples of treatment regimes listed above are simple illustrations of possible control programmes. More complex programmes have been proposed that are tailored to more
specific environments, such as health care facilities Goddard, Jarratt deShazo, 2002. These published programmes are only models and generally must be modified to suit
site-specific needs.
6.7. Emerging problems and policy options
Early detection and a rapid response to eliminate infestations are vital to prevent the esta- blishment of both fire ant and Pharaoh ant colonies in new areas. In the long run, pre-
venting establishment is also more cost effective than eradication of established popula- tions.
6.7.1. Fire ants
With regard to fire ants and countries at risk for fire ants becoming established, sur- veillance mechanisms, clearance for treatments, a manufacturing sources for treatments
and centralized coordinated response plans should be kept in place. As discussed in sec- tion 6.5.3, the eradication programme in Australia has shown the best potential of being
a model for fire ant eradication in a relatively large urban area. Moreover, initiatives to prevent the incursion of invasive ants, such as the Pacific Ant Prevention Plan Invasive
Species Specialist Group, 2004, are being developed. The Plan was generated for the Pacific islands and countries. The Pacific Invasive Ant Group provides guidelines that
address legislation or policy to prevent entry of invasive ants, with a focus on red impor- ted fire ants and outlines surveillance and response procedures for preventing ants from
becoming established. These guidelines are broad in scope and adaptable to other at-risk regions, such as southern Europe.
The need to efficiently improve the ability to detect low levels of fire ant populations is dire. Current monitoring methods that utilize food lures are time sensitive and lack spe-
cies specificity; also, the placement of lures must be within the foraging range of a colony, which can be small for small colonies. Alternatively, visual surveys for nests made by
teams of inspectors are very labour intensive, and quality assurance must be maintained. Thus, research to develop more sensitive and efficient surveillance tools is needed to sup-
Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
201
Buczkowski G et al. 2005. Efficacy of simulated barrier treatments against laboratory colonies of Pharaoh ant. Journal of Economic Entomology, 98:485–492.
Buren WF et al. 1974. Zoogeography of the imported fire ants. Journal of the New York Entomological Society
, 82:113–124 Burrus RG 2004. Pharaoh ant consumption of fluids used in hospital environments [MSc
thesis]. Gainesville, FL, University of Florida. California Academy of Sciences 2006. AntWeb [web site]. San Francisco, CA, California
Academy of Sciences http:www.antweb.orgindex.jsp, accessed 12 November 2006 California Department of Food and Agriculture 1999. Red imported fire ants: be on
the lookout [web site]. Sacramento, CA, California Department of Food and Agriculture http:www.cdfa.ca.govphppspdeprifahtmlenglishmediaroomRIFAactionplan.html
, accessed 12 November 2006.
Callcott AA, Collins HL 1996. Invasion and range expansion of imported fire ants Hymenoptera: Fomicidae in North America from 1918–1995. Florida Entomologist,
79:240–251.
Caplan EL et al. 2003. Fire ants represent an important risk for anaphylaxis among resi- dents of an endemic region. T he Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology,
111:1274–1277.
Cartwright RY, Clifford CM 1973. Letter: Pharaoh’s ants. Lancet, 2:1455–1456. Clemmer DI, Serfling RE 1975. The imported fire ant: dimensions of the urban pro-
blem. Southern Medical Journal, 68:1133–1138. Collins HL, Callcott AMA 1998. Fipronil: an ultra-low-dose bait toxicant for control of
red imported fire ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Florida Entomologist, 81:407–415. Collins HL et al. 1992. Seasonal trends in effectiveness of hydramethylnon AMDRO
and fenoxycarb LOGIC for control of red imported fire ants H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 85:2131–2137.
Davis LR Jr, Vander Meer RK, Porter SD 2001. Red imported fire ants expand their range across the West Indies. Florida. Entomologist, 84:735–736.
deShazo RD, Butcher BT, Banks WA 1990. Reactions to the stings of the imported fire ant. The New England Journal of Medicine, 323:462–466.
deShazo RD, Williams DF, Moak ES 1999. Fire ant attacks on residents in health care facilities: a report of two cases. Annals of Internal Medicine, 131:424–429.
Pharaoh ants and fire ants
200
References
1
Agosti D, Johnson NF, eds 2005. Antbase.org [web site]. New York, American Museum of Natural History http:antbase.org, version 052005, accessed 2 August 2006.
Alekseev AN et al. 1972. [On the preservation of plague microbes on the surface and in the intestinal tract of the little yellow ant, Monomorium pharaonisL.: experimental study].
Medicinskaja Parazitologija i Parazitarnye Bolezni , 41:237–239 in Russian.
Allen GE et al. 1974. Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta: distribution and habitat in Mato Grosso, Brazil. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 67:43–46.
Alvares LE, Bueno OC, Fowler HG 1993. Larval instars and immature development of a Brazilian population of Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium pharaonis L. H ym.,
Formicidae. Journal of Applied Entomology, 116:90–93.
Barr CL 2004. How fast is fast? Indoxacarb broadcast bait. In: Pollet D, ed. Proceedings of the 2004 Imported Fire Ant Conference
, Baton Rouge, LA, 21–23 March 2004. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University:46–49.
Barr CL, Best RL 2002. Product evaluations, field research and new products resulting from applied research. Southwestern Entomologist Supplement, 25:47–52.
Barr CL, Summerlin W, Drees BM 1999. A costefficacy comparison of individual mound treatments and broadcast baits. In: Proceedings of the 1999 Imported Fire Ant
Conference, Charleston, South Carolina, 3–5 March 1999 . Clemson, SC, Clemson University
http:cphst.aphis.usda.govsectionsSIPSConf_Proceedings1999_20IFA_Conference .pdf, accessed 26 January 2007:31–36.
Barr CL et al. 2001. Different ratios of s-methoprene and hydramethylnon baits as hopper blends for the suppression of red imported fire ants. In: Red imported fire ant
research and management program result demonstration handbook, 1999–2003 . College
Station, T X, Texas AM University http:fireant.tamu.eduresearcharryear99- 03res_dem_9903pdf9_different_ratios.pdf, accessed 2 August 2006:28–31.
Barr CL et al. 2005. Broadcast baits for fire ant control. College Station, Texas, Texas AM University System B-6099.
Beatson SH 1972. Pharaoh’s ants as pathogen vectors in hospitals. Lancet, 1:425–427. Beatson SH 1973. Pharaoh’s ants enter giving-sets. Lancet, 1:606.
1
Information was gleaned mostly from pertinent research and review journal articles, with an emphasis on recent publications. However, many older articles provided the only relevant information available and thus were included. Trade publications were
cited if they provided data in support of their findings.
Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
203
Freeman TM et al. 1992. Imported fire ant immunotherapy: effectiveness of whole body extracts. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 90:210–215.
Goddard J, Jarratt J, deShazo RD 2002. Recommendations for prevention and mana- gement of fire ant infestation of health care facilities. Southern Medical Journal, 95:
627–633.
Haack KD 1991. Elimination of Pharaoh ants: an analysis of field trials with Pro-control and Maxforce ant baits. Pest Control Technology, 19:32–33, 36, 38, 42.
Hölldobler B, Wilson EO 1990. The ants. Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Invasive Species Specialist Group 2004. Pacific ant prevention plan. Auckland, New Zealand, World Conservation Union
http:www.issg.orgdatabasespeciesreference_filespapp.pdf, accessed 12 November 2006.
Jetter KM, Hamilton J, Klotz JH 2002. Red imported fire ants threaten agriculture, wildlife and homes. California Agriculture, 56:26–34.
Kabashima JN et al. 2003. Pesticide runoff and mitigation at a commercial nursery site. In: Gan J et al., eds. Deactivation and detoxification of biocides and pesticides. ACS
Symposium Series. Washington, DC, American Chemical Society:213–230.
Kemp SF et al. 2000. Expanding habitat of the imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta: a public health concern. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 105:683–691.
Klotz JH et al. 1996. Laboratory evaluation of a boric acid liquid bait on colonies of Tapinoma melanocephalum
, Argentine ants, and Pharaoh ants H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 89:673–677.
Klotz JH et al. 2003. An insect pest of agricultural, urban, and wildlife areas: the red imported fire ant. In: Sumner DA, ed. Exotic pests and diseases: biology and economics for
biosecurity . Ames, IA, Iowa State Press:151–166.
Kohn M, Vlˇcek M 1986. Outdoor persistence throughout the year of Monomorium pha- raonis
Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Entomologia Generalis, 11:213–215. Korzukhin MD et al. 2001. Modeling temperature-dependent range limits for the fire
ant Solenopsis invicta Hymenoptera: Formicidae in the United States. Environmental Entomology
, 30:645–655. Lard CF, Hall C, Salin V 2001. The economic impact of the red imported fire ant on the
homescape, landscape, and the urbanscape of selected metroplexes of Texas . . College Station,
TX, Department of Agricultural Economics, Texas AM University Faculty Series
Pharaoh ants and fire ants
202
deShazo RD et al. 2004. Fire ant attacks on patients in nursing homes: an increasing problem. The American Journal of Medicine, 116:843–846.
DPIF 2004. N ational fire ant eradication program, N ovember 2004 – progress report. Brisbane, Australia, The State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and
Fisheries http:www2.dpi.qld.gov.auextrapdffireantsprogressreport2004.pdf, acces- sed 2 January 2007.
Drees BM 2003. Estimated amounts of insecticide ingredients used for imported fire ant control using various treatment approaches
. College Station, TX, Texas AM University Fire Ant Plan Fact Sheet No. 042;
http:fireant.tamu.edumaterialsfactsheets_pubspdf042_jun03.pdf, accessed 2 August 2006.
Drees BM, Davis PR 2002. Scientific review of the red imported fire ant eradication program – report to the red imported fire ant national consultative committee October 2002
. Brisbane, Australia, The State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
http:www2.dpi.qld.gov.auextrapdffireantssapreport.pdf, accessed 2 January 2007. Edwards JP 1975. The effects of a juvenile hormone analogue on laboratory colonies of
Pharaoh’s ant Monomorium pharaonis L. H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Bulletin of Entomological Research
, 65:75–80. Edwards JP 1986. The biology, economic importance, and control of the Pharaoh’s ant,
Monomorium pharaonis L.. In: Vinson SB, ed. Economic impact and control of social insects.
New York, Praeger: 257–271. Edwards JP, Baker LF 1981. Distribution and importance of the Pharaoh’s ant
Monomorium pharaonis L. in National Health Service Hospitals in England. The Journal
of Hospital Infection , 2:249–254.
Edwards JP, Clarke B 1978. Eradication of Pharaoh’s ants with baits containing the insect juvenile hormone analogue methoprene. International Pest Control, 20:5–10.
Eichler W 1990. Health aspects and control of Monomorium pharaonis. In: Vander Meer RK. Jaffe K, Cedeno A, eds. Applied myrmecology: a world perspective. Boulder, CO,
Westview Press:671–675.
Ferguson JS, Hosmer AJ, Green ME 1996. Rate of removal of fenoxycarb Logic® fire ant bait by red imported fire ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae from treated pastures.
Journal of Entomological Science , 31:20–32.
Fowler HG et al. 1990. Major ant problems of South America. In: Vander Meer RK, Jaffe K, Cedeno A, eds. Applied myrmecology: a world perspective. Boulder, CO, Westview
Press:3–14.
Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
205
Oi DH, Vail KM, Williams DF 2000. Bait distribution among multiple colonies of Pharaoh ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 93:1247–1255.
Oi DH, Watson CA, Williams DF 2004. Monitoring and management of red imported fire ants in a tropical fish farm. Florida Entomologist, 87:522–527.
Oi DH, Williams DF 1996. Toxicity and repellency of potting soil treated with bifen- thrin and tefluthrin to red imported fire ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of
Economic Entomology , 89:1526–1530.
Oi DH , Williams DF 2002. Impact of T helohania solenopsae Microsporidia: T helohaniidae on polygyne colonies of red imported fire ants H ymenoptera:
Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology, 95:558–562.
Oi DH et al. 1994. Indoor and outdoor foraging locations of Pharaoh ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae, with implications for control strategies using bait stations.
Florida Entomologist , 77:85–91.
Oi FM 2005. Household ants still 1 pest. Florida Pest Pro Magazine, 1:12, 14, 16. Peacock AD, Baxter AT 1949. Studies in Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium pharaonis L.. 1.
The rearing of artificial colonies. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 85:256–260. Peacock AD, Baxter AT 1950. Studies in Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium pharaonis L.. 3.
Life history. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 86:171–178. Peacock AD, Sudd JH, Baxter AT 1955a. Studies in Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium pha-
raonis L.. 11. Colony foundation. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 91:125–129.
Peacock AD, Sudd JH, Baxter AT 1955b. Studies in Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium pha- raonis
L.. 12. Dissemination. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 91:130–133. Peacock AD, Waterhouse FL, Baxter AT 1955. Studies in Pharaoh’s ant, Monomorium
pharaonis L.. 10. Viability in regard to temperature and humidity. Entomologist’s Monthly
Magazine , 91:37–42.
Pereira RM 2003. Areawide suppression of fire ant populations in pastures: project update. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology, 20:123–130.
Pereira RM et al. 2002. Yellow head disease caused by a newly discovered Mattesia sp. in populations of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. Journal of Invertebrate
Pathology , 81:45–48.
Porter SD 1988. Impact of temperature on colony growth and developmental rates of the ant, Solenopsis invicta. Journal of Insect Physiology, 34:1127–1133.
Pharaoh ants and fire ants
204
Paper FP01–3; http:agecon.tamu.edupublicationsfacultyPapers2001fp01-3.pdf, acces- sed 2 January 2007.
Lard CF et al. 2002. Economics assessments of red imported fire ant on Texas’ urban and agricultural sectors. Southwestern Entomologist Supplement, 25:123–137.
Lee CY et al. 2003. Evaluation of methoprene granular baits against foraging Pharaoh ants, Monomorium pharaonis Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Sociobiology, 41:717–723.
Levine J et al. 2005. Surface and ground water monitoring of pesticides used in the red imported fire ant control program
. Sacramento, CA, California Department of Pesticide Regulation, Environmental Monitoring Branch Report EH 05-02;
http:www.cdpr.ca.govdocsempmpubsehaprepsEH0502.pdf, accessed 3 August 2006.
Lim SP, Lee CY 2005. Effects of juvenile hormone analogs on new reproductives and colony growth of Pharaoh ant H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic
Entomology , 98:2169–2175.
Lofgren CS, Williams DF 1982. Avermectin B1a: highly potent inhibitor of reproduc- tion by queens of the red imported fire ant H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of
Economic Entomology , 75:798–803.
Macom TE, Porter SD 1996. Comparison of polygyne and monogyne red imported fire ant Hymenoptera: Formicidae population densities. Annals of the Entomological Society
of America , 89:535–543.
Markin GP et al. 1971. Nuptial flight and flight ranges of the imported fire ant, Solenopsis saevissima richteri
H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society
, 6:145–156. Miller S et al. 2000. Contingent valuation of South Carolina households’ willingness to
pay for imported fire ant control. In: Croker JL, Vail, KM, Pereira RM, eds. Proceedings of the 2000 Imported Fire Ant Conference.
Chattanooga, Tennessee, 5–7 April 2000. Chattanooga, Tennessee, The University of Tennessee http:cphst.aphis.usda.govsec-
tionssipsconf_proceedings2000_20ifa_conference.pdf, accessed 26 January 2007. Morrison LW, Porter SD 2005. Testing for population-level impacts of introduced
Pseudacteon tricuspis flies, phorid parasitoids of Solenopsis invicta fire ants. Biological
Control , 33:9–19.
Morrison LW et al. 2004. Potential global range expansion of the invasive fire ant, Solenopsis invicta
. Biological Invasions, 6:183–191. Oi DH, Vail KM, Williams DF 1996. Field evaluation of perimeter treatments for
Pharaoh ant Hymenoptera: Formicidae control. Florida Entomologist, 79:252–263.
Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
207
Tracy JM et al. 1995. The natural history of exposure to the imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta
. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 95:824–828. Tschinkel WR 1986. The ecological nature of the fire ant: some aspects of colony func-
tion and some unanswered questions. In: Lofgren CS, Vander Meer R, eds. Fire ants and leaf cutting ants: biology and management.
Boulder, CO, Westview Press: 72–87. Tschinkel WR 1987. Fire ant queen longevity and age: estimation by sperm depletion.
Annals of the Entomological Society of America , 80:263–266.
Tschinkel WR 1993. Sociometry and sociogenesis of colonies of the fire ant Solenopsis invicta
during one annual cycle. Ecological Monographs, 64:425–457. T schinkel WR 2006. T he fire ants. Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press of H arvard
University Press. Tschinkel WR, Howard DF 1980. A simple, non-toxic home remedy against fire ants.
Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society , 15:102–105.
USDA-APHIS 2005. Imported fire ant 2005: quarantine treatments for nursery stock and other regulated articles.
Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant H ealth Inspection Service APH IS Program Aid No. 1822;
www.aphis.usda.govlpapubsifapub.pdf, accessed 2 January 2007. USDA-APHIS 2006. Imported fire ant quarantine [web site]. Washington, DC, United
States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant H ealth Inspection Service http:www.aphis.usda.govppqmapsfireant.pdf, accessed 26 January 2007.
Vail KM 1996. Foraging, spatial distribution, and control of the Pharaoh ant, Monomorium pharaonis L. [Ph.D. dissertation]. Gainesville, FL, University of Florida.
Vail KM, Williams DF 1994. Foraging of the Pharaoh ant, Monomorium pharaonis: an exotic in the urban environment. In: Williams DF, ed. Exotic ants: biology, impact, and
control of introduced species . Boulder, CO, Westview Press:228–239.
Vail KM, Williams DF 1995. Pharaoh ant Hymenoptera: Formicidae colony deve- lopment after consumption of pyriproxyfen baits. Journal of Economic Entomology,
88:1695–1702.
Vail KM, Williams DF, Oi DH 1996. Perimeter treatments with two bait formulations of pyriproxyfen for control of Pharaoh ants H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of
Economic Entomology , 89:1501–1507.
Valles SM, Porter SD 2003. Identification of polygyne and monogyne fire ant colonies Solenopsis invicta by multiplex PCR of Gp-9 alleles. Insectes Sociaux, 50:199–200.
Pharaoh ants and fire ants
206
Porter SD, Fowler HG, Mackay WP 1992. Fire ant mound densities in the United States and Brazil H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology,
85:1154–1161.
Reimer N, Beardsley JW, Jahn G 1990. Pest ants in the Hawaiian islands. In: Vander Meer RK, Jaffe K, Cedeno A, eds. Applied myrmecology: a world perspective. Boulder, CO.,
Westview Press:40–50.
Rhoades RB, Stafford CT, James FK Jr 1989. Survey of fatal anaphylactic reactions to imported fire ants stings. Report of the Fire Ant Subcommittee of the American
Academy of Allergy and Immunology. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 84:159–162.
Samˇsiˇnák K, Vobrázková E, Vaˇnková J 1984. A laboratory-reared stock of Monomorium pharaonis
L. H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie, 97:399–402.
Smith MR 1965. House-infesting ants of the eastern United States: their recognition, bio- logy, and economic importance
. USDA Technical Bulletin 1326. Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture.
Soeprono AM, Rust MK 2004a. Effect of horizontal transfer of barrier insecticides to control Argentine ants Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology,
97:1675–1681.
Soeprono AM, Rust MK 2004b. Effect of delayed toxicity of chemical barriers to control Argentine ants H ymenoptera: Formicidae. Journal of Economic Entomology,
97:2021–2028.
Stafford CT et al. 1989. Imported fire ant as a health hazard. Southern Medical Journal, 82:1515–1519.
Sudd JH 1962. The natural history of Monomorium pharaonis L. Hym., Formicidae infesting houses in Nigeria. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 98:164–166.
Taber SW 2000. Fire ants. College Station, TX, Texas AM University Press. Thompson CR 1990. Ants that have pest status in the United States. In: Vander Meer
RK, Jaffe K, Cedeno A, eds. Applied myrmecology: a world perspective. Boulder, CO, Westview Press:51–67.
Thompson LC et al. 1995. Fire ant economic impact: extending Arkansas’ survey results over the south. In: Vinson SB, Drees BM, eds. Proceedings of the Fifth International Pest
Ant Symposia and 1995 Annual Imported Fire Ant Research Conference , San Antonio, Texas,
2–4 May 1995:155–156.
Public Health Significance of Urban Pests
209 208
7. Flies
