Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
4.3.2. Potential as vectors of human pathogens
Common bedbugs have been found to naturally contain 28 human pathogens, but they have never been proven to transmit biologically or mechanically even one human patho- gen Usinger, 1966; Burton, 1968 – specifically hepatitis C Silverman et al., 2001 and HIV Webb et al., 1989. Nevertheless, shedding of viral DNA fragments in faecal mat- ter and transstadial across life stage transmission of hepatitis B virus seem to support the possibility of mechanical transmission by contaminated faeces, or when bugs are crus- hed during feeding onto abraded skin by a susceptible person Jupp et al., 1991; Blow et al., 2001. The study by Jupp and colleagues 1991 clearly indicated that common bed- bugs do not biologically transmit hepatitis B. Also, it is still unclear whether or not the reported induction of skin papillomas in the European rabbit Oryctolaguscuniculus sub- sequent to continuous exposure to bites of common bedbugs irradiated by gamma rays el-Mofty, Sakr Younis, 1989 is caused by a viral pathogen. One species of Cimicidae, the cliff swallow bug so far, found occurring naturally infec- ted, only in western North America, has been proven to transmit at least two identifia- ble virus entities in the western equine encephalitis complex: these are the Fort Morgan virus FMV and a distinct strain of FMV, called Buggy Creek virus Hayes et al., 1977; Calisher et al., 1980; Brown Brown, 2005. Transmission has thus far only been repor- ted to occur from infected swallow bugs, mainly adult bugs that usually live in or on the swallows’ nests over the winter until the next year’s susceptible hatchlings of cliff swal- lows. So far, no risk to people from this epizootic virus cycle has been established. The bugs are not very mobile and tend to stay at, on or in the swallow nests and do not rea- dily move to a different nest that is more than a short distance away Foster Olkowski, 1968. A few individual bedbugs of this species have been found very rarely in local small rodent nests and occasionally in a nearby nest of a European or barn swallow Hirundo rustica . This species has been reported to have fed on a person, and it readily feeds on mice in laboratories Usinger, 1966. Although some species of the Cimicidae that seek human beings over other animals have not been investigated very thoroughly, it is unli- kely that any of them pose a threat as a human pathogen vector. In Europe, infestations of human dwellings by the European swallow bug often occur, especially during the wintertime, when their normal hosts have migrated to Africa. Abandoned swallow nests may harbour hundreds of overwintering swallow bugs that search for blood hosts during warmer winter weather conditions. Within a radius of up to 5m, swallow bugs may infest buildings through any opening, and they feed readily on people. In an extensive study in Colorado, cliff swallows and house sparrows Passer domesticus , which live within the swallow nesting colonies, were the main vertebrate hosts for maintenance and amplification of FMV. However, the presence of fairly large populations of these bugs, and their transmission of FMV, reportedly had no significant impact on the health or reproduction of local populations of cliff swallows, house spar- rows or barn swallows in co-located or adjacent breeding sites Scott, Bowen Monath, 1984. Bedbugs 136 mentation of pest control measures. Although it is rare that they attack people, these spe- cies are noted because infestation of human dwellings may occur.4.2.5. Future prospects
Under prevailing conditions, it seems inevitable that bedbugs will continue to spread and cause increased problems. Since 1970, in high- and middle-income countries, the loss of non-repellent and longer residual insecticides, through regulatory actions, has made their control much more difficult. In the United States, anecdotal reports from PMPs about currently labelled products are variable and hard to verify or compare objectively. Some have reported effective control, while others claim outright failure from the same pro- ducts. Also, screening for resistance to such products is rare. There are few published data or reports of screening for resistance on field populations of bedbugs, and no govern- ment or private agency is currently providing routine or even periodic screening of field populations of bedbugs in North America. A few laboratories in Europe and North America have only recently begun planning more extensive, controlled susceptibility resistance testing on bedbugs E. Snell, Snell Scientifics, Barnesville, GA, personal com- munication, May 2005; O. Kilpinen, Danish Pest Infestation Laboratory, Lyngby, Denmark, personal communication, August 2005. Fletcher Axtell 1993 published one of the most recent articles on the susceptibility of a population of lab-reared common bedbugs to several specific insecticide formulations, including some being used com- mercially at that time. At least five of the nine chemicals they tested, which include the active ingredients bendiocarb, carbaryl, dichlorvos, malathion and tetrachlorvinphos, have had their product labels changed, following the United States Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, and those products are no longer available for use in human dwel- lings. In addition to these factors, significant changes in application technologies against other household pests, such as cockroaches and ants, may also have unintentionally eased incidental control of bedbugs Potter, 2004; Gooch, 2005. 4.3. Implications for public health 4.3.1. Obligate blood feedersParts
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» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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