National reporting and Mosquitoes

by indigenous vector-competent mosquitoes that become infected by biting local people who have acquired infections abroad. Also, although endemic malaria has been eradica- ted from Europe and the United States, the mosquitoes capable of transmitting malaria are still widely distributed see subsection 11.4.5. The primary dengue virus vector, the yellow fever mosquito, has been successfully eradicated from Europe see subsection 11.4.3, but not from the United States. Recently, some non-indigenous mosquito species such as the Asian tiger mosquito that are vector-competent for dengue virus, chikun- gunya virus and several other arboviruses have been introduced to Europe and the Unites States through trade in used tyres and lucky bamboo Dracaena spp.. After introduction, these non-indigenous mosquito species have often survived and spread into other areas of their new country. Anthropogenic transportation and active spread are the causes of the emergence of the Asian tiger mosquito in the Western world. It was introduced from its South-East Asian home by the used tyre trade and, after a period of adaptation, began to spread Knudsen, Romi Majori, 1996. In the United States, it was first detected in Texas, in 1985 Sprenger Wuithiranyagool, 1986, and in 2000 it was established in 866 counties in 26 states CDC, 2000. In 2003, however, it was recorded for the first time in Colorado Bennett et al., 2005. In Europe, the Asian tiger mosquito first appeared in Albania, in 1979 Adhami Reiter, 1998, and about 10 years later, in 1990, in Italy Sabatini et al., 1990. The Italian strain of Asian tiger mosquito was imported from the United States, where it adapted to more moderate climate conditions by diapause overwintering after its introduction from South-East Asia Rightor, Farmer Clarke, 1987; Knudsen, Romi Majori, 1996. It soon became widely distributed in southern Europe, and in 1999 it was found in Normandy, in northern France Schaffner et al., 2001b. A year later, in 2000, it was found in Belgium Schaffner, van Bortel Coosemans, 2004, which had been predicted previously as an area of minor distribution risk Knudsen, Romi Majori, 1996. More recently, it was recorded in Montenegro, in 2001 Petri´c et al., 2001; in Switzerland, in 2003 Flacio et al., 2004; in Croatia and Spain, in 2004 Aranda, Eritja Roiz, 2006; Klobuˇcar et al., 2006; and in Bosnia and H erzegovina, Greece, the Netherlands and Slovenia, in 2005 Samanidou-Voyadjoglou et al., 2005; Petri´c et al., 2006; Scholte et al., 2006 Fig. 11.1. The Asian tiger mosquito is an efficient vector of numerous arboviruses, including den- gue, chikungunya and probably West Nile viruses Mitchell, 1995. Dengue fever used to be endemic in Europe some time ago and was associated with high mortality rates Cardamatis, 1929; Rosen, 1986. The rock pool mosquito Aedes atropalpus, which is a vector of EEEV in the United States, has been introduced to southern Europe by used tyres from North America. However, it was then eradicated from two introductory locales in central Italy Romi, di Luca Majori, 1999; Snow Ramsdale, 2002 and western France F. Schaffner, perso- nal communication, 2003 during Asian tiger mosquito control campaigns. The Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus japonicus is a vector of Japanese encephalitis virus and has also been found infected with WNV. It has invaded Europe and the United Public Health Significance of Urban Pests Mosquitoes 359 358 States from Asia. In the United States, it was recor- ded for the first time in the states of New York and New Jersey in 1998 Peyton et al., 1999. In Europe, it was recorded for the first time in north-western France in 2000 Schaffner, Chouin Guilloteau, 2003 a n d in Belgium in 2002 F.Schaffner, personal com- munication, 2002.

11.6. National reporting and

notification In the United States, the CDC is an efficient governmental institution that collects data on both vectors and vector-borne diseases. Data are supplied by state and local health departments and by numerous spe- cialized mosquito control associations. Together with the EPA, the CDC and subordinate departments are responsible for: monitoring disease cases, mosquito distributions and abundances; providing instruction and informative material; and implementing and coordinating nationwide control activities. Also, the American Mosquito Control Association, a scientific and educational institution, supports control measures and pro- vides basic biological data and services to public agencies and their principal staff mem- bers engaged in mosquito control, mosquito research and related activities. The situation in Europe is different. In Europe, an institution equivalent to the American CDC, the ECDC, is presently being set up in Sweden. Its primary aim is to collect epi- demiological data on infectious diseases and coordinate preventive measures on a Europe- wide scale. Another organization, the European Mosquito Control Association EMCA, focuses on mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases; it is comprised of institutions from 22 European countries. These institutions have a governmental, scientific or commercial background. In some European countries, public mosquito control agencies also contri- bute. These agencies, under the auspices of local governments, have entomological exper- tise, a mosquito control mission and can be contacted. Most of them are gathered within the European association of public authorities and operators involved in mosquito control and the management of natural areas where mosquitoes have been controlled, which is also known as the EDEN association. Fig. 11.1. Climate-based distribution risk areas for the Asian tiger mos- quito in Europe, 1996, and subsequent detection of the Asian tiger mosquito Note . Mosquito specimen detection red markings demonstrated by year. Eradicated foci are shown as stars, proliferation areas are encircled. Source: Climate-based distribution risk areas: Knudsen, Romi Majori 1996; current detection spots and areas of Asian tiger mosquito: synthesis by the authors. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests Mosquitoes 361 360 Attempts have been made to list, on a literature research base, all mosquito species for all countries belonging to the WHO European Region, but much of the data are outda- ted and several countries do not have data available. According to Schaffner and collea- gues 2001a, Snow Ramsdale 2003, and Becker and colleagues 2003, there are about 100 species of mosquitoes in Europe. For Canada and the United States, more than 160 mosquito species are recorded Darsie Ward, 1981. Owing to continuous mosquito monitoring, mainly done by mosquito control associations, states in the United States are entomologically far more up to date than most European countries and can react more quickly and more efficiently to emergencies.

11.8. Mosquito control and management