Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
4.5.4.4. Steam
Some pest managers have effectively used steam treatments to quickly eliminate live bugs and their eggs from the seams of mattresses and other cloth items. Effective use of this technique requires practice and care. Manufacturer’s instructions about the steam gene- rating devices’ operation, maintenance and safety precautions must be followed carefully. To be effective, the steam emission tip must be about 2.5–3.8 cm from the surface being steamed. If the tip is too far away, the steam water vapour may not be hot enough to kill all the bedbugs and eggs on such a surface. If the tip is too close, excess moisture may be injected into the treated material, and that can potentially lead to other problems – for example, facilitating the survival and increase of dust mite populations and creating an environment for the growth of surface molds.4.5.4.5. Sticky monitors
Insect monitors with an adhesive layer on a flat cardboard backing are a simple means to detect many types of crawling insects. They have also been recommended to augment other techniques for increased control of some wandering spiders. Although bedbugs often get caught on such monitors, many recent reports from pest control technicians in North America have indicated these are not very effective at detecting much less increa- sing the level of control of small to moderate populations of bedbugs in rooms where other signs are obvious, where bugs are easily found by direct observation and where peo- ple are being bitten routinely. Based on this evidence, both the impact of such devices on the control of bedbugs and their reliability as a surveillance tool for the bugs are poor.4.5.5. Pesticide applications
Currently, the exclusive use of non-insecticide control products and techniques is not effective or efficient enough to be practical. Even their use as a primary means for control- ling or eliminating an established bedbug population is ineffective. Still one of the most effective, practical and quickest ways to reduce the size of an established bedbug infes- tation is the use of a precisely placed but thorough application of a properly labelled, registered and adequately formulated residual insecticide. Effective control usually consists of applying interior sprays or dusts to surfaces that the bedbugs crawl over to reach the host, as well as applying them to cracks and crevices where they rest and hide. Microencapsulated formulations and dust formulations have a longer residual effect than other formulations. Also, both synergized and natural pyrethrins are used. Synergized pyrethrins not only show high lethal activity against the bugs, but they also show the abi- lity to flush them out, allowing quicker analysis of the infested area. Moreover, the addi- tion of natural pyrethrins at 0.1–0.2 vv to organophosphate, carbamate or microen- capsulated insecticide formulations will increase efficacy by irritating the bedbugs and initiating an excitatory effect that causes them to leave their hiding places, thereby increa- sing exposure to the fresh insecticide layer. Modified diatomaceous earths with hydrophobic surfaces can also be used to treat cracks and crevices. Retreatment, however, is essential and should be carried out at not less than two-week intervals until the population has been eradicated. Bedbugs 144 tly sealed containers can greatly reduce the availability of harbourage sites.4.5.3.3. Mattress covers
Commercially available plastic covers, at least 0.8 mm thick and usually having a zippe- red edge, can completely encase a mattress or box spring and stop any bedbugs harbou- ring in either of them from further access to bite a host using that bed. Such covers were first developed and marketed as a measure to help reduce human exposure to HDM aller- gens that emanated from mattresses, but they can work well to isolate bedbugs within or keep them out of such items. If no such covers are readily available, any plastic of similar thickness and strength can be used to completely cover a mattress or box spring, and it can be sealed tightly shut with any durable, flexible tape, such as filament tape or duct tape Cooper Harlan, 2004.4.5.4. Physical elimination techniques
Heat, cold and steam are used in physical techniques for eliminating bedbugs.4.5.4.1. Heat
Heating infested rooms or whole buildings to temperatures of at least 45°C, the thermal death point of common bedbugs, has been used to try to control bedbugs since the early 1900s. For a heat treatment to be effective, it is critical to attain a high enough tempera- ture, low enough relative humidity and minimum length of time at those combined conditions. Some species of stored product pest beetles, which are considered to be very hard to kill, have been shown to be eliminated by exposure to a combination of 49–52°C and 20–30 relative humidity for 20–30 minutes Dosland, 2001. Heat treatments, however, do not prevent reinfestations, and bedbugs can reoccupy any site so treated immediately after temperatures return to ambient levels. Of concern in particular situa- tions, when using this technique for physically eliminating bedbugs, is the potential phy- sical distortion of structures or their contents, as well as flammability risks for some kinds of heat sources Usinger, 1966.4.5.4.2. Cold
If bedbugs are kept cold enough long enough, exposure to cold temperatures can kill them. Bedbugs can tolerate –15°C for short periods and, if acclimated, they can survive at or below 0°C continuously for several days Usinger, 1966. Cold treatments of rooms or buildings to control bedbugs have not been well studied or used often, but freezing of furniture or other items within containers or chambers may be a practical alternative for limited infestations or to augment other control measures.4.5.4.3. Controlled atmospheres
In a small series of very preliminary laboratory tests conducted by the German Federal Environmental Agency, all life stages of common bedbugs were reportedly killed within 24 hours or less by constant exposure to very high concentrations of carbon dioxide gas at ambient atmospheric pressure, but they were not affected very much by high concen- trations of nitrogen gas under those same conditions Herrmann et al., 1999. Further precise testing of such a strategy may be warranted. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 147 control techniques to use against them. Several different active ingredients and formu- lations have been licensed and are currently used against bedbugs, and a variety of insec- ticide formulations and devices must be used to treat infested harbourages. As per label directions, applications of dust formulations should be used in electrical outlet boxes and in other places where it is desirable to use a minimum-risk, long-lasting insecticide.4.5.5.5. Use of pest management products
Parts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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