Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
3.3.6.4. Barrier fabrics
Barrier bedding materials can be a major benefit in combating HDMs. They can act as a physical barrier to the mites themselves; on a new mattress, the barrier prevents mites from entering and therefore colonizing it. Also, the barrier stops mite faecal material already present in an old mattress from escaping into the atmosphere, where it can be inhaled. Fabrics with a pore size of 10 µm or less can effectively block the faecal pellets Vaughan et al., 1999. In addition, these fabrics prevent the dead skin cells upon which the mites feed from penetrating the mattress. Thus, the mites and their allergens are effectively contained within the mattress, and the mites are cut off from a continuing food supply. A number of trials of barrier bedding have highlighted the clinical benefits of this type of intervention. As a result of its use, atopic infants who received barrier bedding did not become sensitized to HDM allergens Nishioka, Yasueda Saito, 1998. Also, airway hyperresponsiveness improved significantly after six months with barrier bedding in place van der Heide et al., 1997, and symptom scores in patients with barrier bedding improved after a year. Barrier fabrics should be fitted not only to mattresses, but also to pillows and duvets. It is also essential that barrier fabrics be properly constructed. An effective fabric can lose a significant amount of its efficacy as a result of poor quality zippers and stitching, which can let through allergens. It is also recommended that zippers be covered with flaps and that the barrier provides 100 cover. Moreover, it is important to select a breathable fabric, to prevent the risk of mould growing within the mattress and to minimize dis- comfort from sweating; in general, woven fabrics are longer lasting than other types. For barrier fabrics to be effective, it is also essential for them to be properly cleaned and for the rest of the bedding to be washed regularly, so that it remains free of allergens.3.3.7. Pesticides
Acaricides or insecticides can be used to control HDMs. They are typically applied as surface treatments or impregnated into fibres and fabrics used in the construction of mat- tresses, soft furnishings and carpets. Acaricides can kill mites, providing they are applied correctly, although they generally have very little effect on HDM allergen levels. For controlling HDMs, benzyl benzoate is the most commonly used acaricide, although an increasing number of products use pyrethroids, such as permethrin. In vitro studies normally show acaricidal products to be highly effective, causing rapid HDM death Hart, Guerin Nolard, 1992; Hyden et al., 1992. However, Colloff and colleagues 1992 reported that the high level of mortality observed in the laboratory from the use of aca- ricides cannot be simply reproduced in the home. Also, Tovey Marks 1999 highligh- ted the importance of ensuring that acaricides made available to the public are not only subjected to in vitro studies, but that they also have been properly field tested in domes- tic environments. Moreover, De Boer 1998 questioned the ability of acaricides to pene- trate deeply into upholstered furniture and mattresses, thus reducing their potential effi- cacy. In such a situation, it may be more effective to make bedding and upholstery with House dust mites 110 on one spot for a prolonged period of time and a considerable proportion of the HDMs will be shaded from the light by their environment.3.3.6. Physical control methods
3.3.6.1. Habitat modification
HDMs inhabit a diverse range of habitats within the home, and by removing or modi- fying these habitats it is possible to reduce the potential for mite population development. Habitat modification can also make rooms easier to clean, thus aiding the removal of HDM allergens.3.3.6.2. Carpets
Physically, carpets provide an excellent habitat for HDMs, particularly near the edges of beds, chairs and sofas where they are showered with skin scales Colloff, 1998. Platts- Mills and colleagues 1996 suggested that fitted carpets, together with increased indoor temperatures and decreased ventilation, are among the housing-related changes that have increased the prevalence and severity of asthma. Carpets are one of the major habitats of HDMs and can contain the largest reservoir of mite allergens in the house Tovey, 1992. However, carpets favour a somewhat different hygrothermal environment than the rest of the room. Van Bronswijk 1981 cites a 1966 study by Leupen Varekamp that shows that they tend to be cooler and damper. This is particularly the case where carpets are laid directly onto a concrete and screed ground floor. Hygrothermally, carpets are dis- tinct from beds and upholstery in that they do not generally benefit from proximity to human warmth and moisture. Studies have shown that long or loose-pile carpets tend to harbour more mites and allergens than short-pile carpets or hard floors Arlian, 1989, for example. Carpets in homes are typically replaced with hard flooring, such as wood, tile and lami- nate. When properly fitted, these hard surfaces are inhospitable to HDMs and, by remo- ving one of their major habitats, it is possible to reduce the number of HDMs and there- fore the amount of allergen produced. Hard floors are also more readily cleaned than soft floors. Mulla and colleagues 1975 found that vacuum cleaning removed nearly all of the mites and allergens from hard floors. Because dust may become more easily air- borne from a hard floor than from a carpet; it is essential that hard floors be cleaned on a regular basis.3.3.6.3. Soft furnishings
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» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
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» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
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» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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