Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches

Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 73 kroaches and those species most likely to be used in biological control. The most promi- sing parasitoids are the cockroach wasp Aprostocetus hagenowii, against Periplaneta spp., and the encyrtid wasp Comperia merceti family Encyrtidae, against the brownbanded cockroach. Some transitory predator wasps family Evaniidae, such as the emerald coc- kroach wasp Ampulex compressa are difficult to rear, and their large size probably makes them unacceptable candidates in indoor settings. Thoms Robinson 1987a reported that 60 of the homeowners killed the evaniid parasitoid Prosevania punctata when they encountered it. Outdoor releases may be more appropriate for the evaniid parasitoids, because of their size and wasp-like behaviour Lebeck, 1991. The efficacy of evaniid parasitoids used to control cockroaches is mixed. The evaniid parasitoid P. punctata and the cockroach wasp were collected at a field site in Virginia from oothecae of oriental cockroaches Thoms Robinson, 1987b. None of the oothe- cae placed inside the structure and observed was parasitized, even though adult P. punc- tata were regularly collected indoors. In the study, about 51 of oothecae recovered from outdoor sites were parasitized, 15 by P. punctata and 36 by cockroach wasps. Thoms and Robinson postulated that the cockroach wasp may be more efficient because the deve- lopment time is 24–64 days, compared with 37–337 days for P. punctata. Also, about 30–93 adult cockroach wasps emerge per ootheca compared with 1 adult for P. punctata. Moreover, the cockroach wasp is smaller and less conspicuous than P. punctata. In ano- ther study, releases of cockroach wasps in sewers did not become established or provide control of American cockroaches Reierson et al., 2005. Releases of the encyrtid wasp C. merceti in indoor facilities to control the brownbanded cockroach have probably been the best-studied effort of the biological control of coc- kroaches. In an insect rearing facility, Coler, Van Driesche Elkinton 1984 reported increased parasitism by C. merceti and decreased brownbanded cockroach trap catches. Initially cockroach populations were low, and cockroaches were added to increase popu- lations, resulting in 70–90 parasitism of oothecae. Cockroach populations increased for a while and then decreased to low levels. For studies of low-level populations of brown- banded cockroaches, augmentation may be necessary. In follow-up studies, Hechmer Van Driesche 1996 reported that two populations of the parasitoid C. merceti had main- tained themselves on two separate indoor brownbanded cockroach populations without supplemental releases for 10 years. Levels of parasitism ranged from 36 to 93. Lebeck 1991 believes that C. merceti has pest management potential, especially with overwhel- ming releases. Even though some reviews suggest that fungi and nematodes may be promising biologi- cal control agents Suiter, 1997, desiccation, spore viability and avoidance of bait stations have been a problem. Koehler, Patterson Martin 1992 found that the time required to kill 50 of the cockroaches exposed to Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes was related inversely to the moisture of their preferred habitats. German and brownbanded coc- kroaches were the most susceptible. American, oriental and smokybrown cockroaches were less susceptible. Nematodes, however, require moisture and the delivery of viable nematodes in relatively dry habitats of German and brownbanded cockroaches is pro- blematic. Cockroaches 72 oxidase-based metabolism and nerve insensitivity, was found in these strains. Cross-resistance continues to be an obstacle to finding alternative treatments when resis- tance develops. Holbrook and colleagues 2003 found that about 13 of 19 strains collec- ted in the field showed some level of resistance to fipronil. Also, there was a direct rela- tionship to resistance to cyclodienes. However, when fipronil was fed in baits, there was more than enough active ingredient to kill even the most tolerant individuals in their study. Even though the use of dieldrin in Denmark was discontinued over 30 years ago, resistance to it persists. Kristensen, Hansen Vagn Jensen 2005 reported four strains collected in the field resistant to dieldrin and cross-resistant to fipronil. The mutation confers about 15-fold resistance to fipronil. Strategies that rotate the use of different insecticides have often been recommended to counteract resistance. Applications of organophosphates may be most effective when used before pyrethroids in a rotational programme. Rotating on each generation and using a third insecticide or mixture of insecticides may be the best strategy to prevent high-level resistance to any one compound. The importance of developing effective rotational sche- mes diminished with the advent of baits in control programmes. However, the appea- rance of the cross-resistance to fipronil and behavioral resistance to baits has made this an important topic again.

2.7.2. Behavioural resistance

Even though numerous studies have shown the existence of physiological insecticide resis- tance in cockroaches, there have been few examples of behavioral resistance. In one such example, a strain of German cockroach was shown to have an aversion to feeding on glu- cose in the diet and, consequently, did not consume toxic baits containing glucose Silverman Bieman, 1993. Subsequently, strains collected in the field in the Republic of Korea and the United States were also shown to have this glucose aversion Silverman Ross, 1994. These studies suggest that the rotation of baits with different active ingredients will not be enough to prevent reduced performance. It will be necessary to also monitor food pre- ferences and make necessary changes to prevent avoidance. This is extremely important, because of the central and pivotal role that baits play in cockroach IPM programmes.

2.8. Biological control

The incorporation of natural predators, parasitoids insects whose larvae are parasites that eventually kill their hosts and pathogens to control peridomestic undomesticated animals that, nevertheless, live in close proximity to humans cockroaches has been a long-term goal of IPM Suiter, 1997. The use of biological predators is especially attrac- tive in sensitive situations where insecticide applications may be inappropriate, such as animal rearing facilities, zoos, sewers, and greenhouses. Lebeck 1991 has provided an excellent review of the hymenopterous insects having two pairs of membranous wings and an ovipositor specialized for stinging or depositing eggs natural enemies of coc- Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 75 • In some situations, large blocks of flats or entire buildings will need to be treated. It is essential, therefore, that the IPM action plan embraces both the tenants and landlords. Failing to treat all of the units will leave potential refuges for reinfestation. Unsuccessful results are discouraging and encourage future noncompliance by tenants and landlords. • Post-treatment evaluations are essential to determine if the IPM action plan has cor- rected the problems and controlled the cockroaches. These evaluations need to be sha- red with tenants and landlords to ensure continued cooperation and support. Input from the tenants and landlords allows the treatment team to evaluate and alter the action plan as needed. The programme must be economically and aesthetically accep- table and must address the needs of the target audience if is to be successful. Acknowledgements A special thanks to Mr. Dong-Hwan Choe for the photographs of the cockroaches and to Mary Rust for her editorial comments. Cockroaches 74

2.9. Conclusions

Cockroaches present an unnecessary threat to public health, especially in multifamily dwellings and commercial food-handling establishments. IPM programmes must be desi- gned to accommodate the pest species and each situation. No two programmes will be identical; however, they all should incorporate the following six steps. • It is essential to identify the pest species and locations where indoor and outdoor infes- tations are breeding or gaining access to structures. The use of commercial traps is an important first step in determining the extent and severity of the problem. Traps can locate sites that need corrective measures. Traps have never been shown to be effective in controlling cockroaches, especially German cockroaches. Trap counts provide a quantitative mechanism upon which to base treatments and evaluate the success of the IPM programme. Trapping can also reduce unnecessary treatments and thereby reduce the amount of insecticides applied. • The development of a community action plan is necessary, so that the tenants, landlords and proprietors actively participate in the IPM programme. The tenant’s assistance and cooperation in removing clutter, food and water sources and in permitting access to their flats is essential. For example, treating infested appliances is essential to prevent cockroaches from moving between flats when tenants move. The other participants, such as landlord or caretaker, have responsibility for maintaining and repairing the structure and surrounding property and for providing adequate trash removal. Also, personnel responsible for repairing structural deficiencies and for treating cockroach infestations must provide tenants and landlords with progress reports and positive feed- back. • Control strategies should involve: prevention built-in pest control; elimination of potential pest harbourages, such as clutter and cracks and crevices and voids; and pre- vention of cockroach movement across common pipes and conduits. The application of non-repellent dusts to voids should be repeated when flats are refurbished between occupancies. In addition to improving living conditions, structural repairs help reduce potential cockroach harbourages and movement within buildings. Cleaning and sanita- tion can be important in removing harbourage sites and sources of food and water. This is especially important in multifamily dwellings, where cockroaches can rapidly spread and the tenants do not feel directly responsible for the problem. • When necessary, applications of insecticidal sprays, dusts and gel baits should be applied to cracks, crevices and voids where cockroaches harbour. Non-repellent insecticides should be used to avoid scattering cockroaches and slow-acting baits might be used indoors whenever possible to improve the control of early instars. When possible, contai- nerized baits should be used, especially in extremely sensitive situations, such as schools and health care facilities. Applications should be made to minimize potential exposure to people and pets. Insecticides should only be applied where warranted, by monitoring with traps or visual inspections. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests 77 Appel AG, Smith LM 2nd 2002. Biology and management of the smokybrown coc- kroach. Annual Review of Entomology, 47:33–55. Atkinson TH, Koehler PG, Patterson RS 1991. Catalogue and atlas of the cockroaches Dictyoptera of North America North of Mexico. Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America , 78:1–86. Auer B, Asperger H, Bauer J 1994. Zur Bedeutung der Schaben als Vektoren pathoge- ner Bakterien. Archiv für Lebensmittelhygiene, Fleisch-, Fisch- und Milchhygiene, 45:89–93. Bajomi D, Kis-Varga A, Bánki G 1993. Cockroach control and maintenance of coc- kroach-free conditions in housing estates of panel construction in Budapest. International Pest Control , 35:39–43. Baker LF 1990. Cockroach incidence in English hospitals and a model contract. In: Robinson WH, ed. Proceedings of the National Conference on Urban Entomology. College Park, MD, University of Maryland:120. Baumholtz MA et al. 1997. T he medical importance of cockroaches. International Journal of Dermatology , 36:90–96. Benson EP, Zungoli PA, Smith LM 2nd 1994. 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3. House dust mites

David Crowther and Toby Wilkinson Summary Less than a millimetre in size, house dust mites are found worldwide, primarily in human dwellings. They themselves are harmless, but they give rise to potent allergens associa- ted with several diseases, notably asthma. The major component of their diet is scales from human skin dander, which is in plentiful supply in a typical home – for example, in mattresses and bedding, carpets, and upholstered furniture. However, mites are also dependent on both temperature and relative humidity, and they cannot survive if hygro- thermal conditions are unfavourable. The observed variability in mite populations and allergen levels, both between and within different regions, can be related, at least in part, to the variability in hygrothermal conditions found within dwellings. In turn, these conditions are affected by the complex interaction of such factors as climate, type of buil- ding construction particularly in relation to the standards of ventilation and insulation provided and occupant behaviour in relation to moisture production, as well as to hea- ting and ventilating habits. Modifying the domestic hygrothermal environment in an appropriate manner thus has considerable potential to be an effective method of controlling house dust mites. Many issues are involved, however, and there are several other methods of control, including various forms of cleaning particularly steam cleaning, temperature control such as elec- tric blankets, physical methods such as barrier fabrics and pesticides. Whether the aim is to prevent mite infestation from occurring or to control an infestation once it has occur- red, it is essential to adopt an integrated approach.