Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
13.4.3. Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
The following subsections discuss the major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents that are believed to cause illness in people in Europe or North America.13.4.3.1. Toxoplasma
Toxoplasmosis is caused by the protozoan parasite T. gondii. The definitive host of T. gondii is the domestic cat, but non-commensal rodents, other mammals and some birds play important roles as intermediate hosts for this parasite Marquardt, Demaree Grieve, 2000. Cats can become infected with Toxoplasma through consumption of infec- ted intermediate hosts, especially rodents. People typically become infected through contact with infectious oocysts shed in cat faeces, an event that can occur while cleaning cat litter boxes. Infections also occasionally arise from eating raw or undercooked meat, particularly mutton or pork, that contains infectious cysts. Pregnant women who become infected can pass T. gondii to their developing fetus, an event that can lead to the death of the fetus or other severe consequences, including brain damage with intracerebral cal- cification, microcephaly, hydrocephaly, jaundice and convulsions at birth Marquardt, Demaree Grieve, 2000; Heymann, 2004. Infections of children and adults are often asymptomatic, but can appear acute with lymphadenopathy. In some instances T. gondii infections resemble mononucleosis, with lymphadenopathy, fever and lymphocytosis.13.4.3.2. Toxocara
Infestation with larval forms of Toxocara spp. can cause a chronic but usually mild dis- ease in people. Infestations are most common in children, but adults also can become infested. People acquire infestations by ingesting worm eggs contained in faecal-conta- minated materials, particularly those shed by dogs or cats, which are definitive hosts of Toxocara canis and T. cati, respectively. Rodents become infested by ingesting eggs contai- ning infective larvae. Once infected, these rodents can act as transport hosts, maintaining the larval worms in their tissues for long periods. If an appropriate definitive host eats an infested transport host, the worms can mature and complete their life-cycle. Dubinsky and colleagues 1995 found anti-Toxocara antibodies in 30.4 and 25.0 of striped field mice and harvest mice Micromys minutus, respectively, in Slovakia, demonstrating that small mammals can play a role in maintaining toxocariasis foci in urban biotopes.13.4.3.3. Babesiae
Rodent-related B. microti and other highly similar agents cause a rare, but potentially severe and even fatal illness in people who live in Europe and North America Goethert Telford, 2003b; Meer-Scherrer et al., 2004; Telford Goethert, 2004. The disease is likely to be severe in immunocompromised individuals, such as those who have under- Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs 44413.4.2.6. Leptospirae
Leptospirosis is an important zoonosis worldwide and is well known in rural and urban settings in Europe Rosicky Sebek, 1974; Daiter et al., 1993; Handysides, 1999; Perra et al., 2002. The infection causes a systemic illness that often leads to renal and hepatic dys- function Levett, 2001. Urban dwellers are at increased risk because of sporadic expo- sures to rat urine as inner cities deteriorate. Reportedly, the incidence of leptospirosis is increasing in urban children, but most cases occur in adults and are acquired as a result of occupational exposures. The causative agent, Leptospira interrogans, is subdivided into numerous serovars that can differ by geographic location and primary host. Most lep- tospiral serovars have their primary reservoir in mammals, which can result in continual re-infection of commensal and non-commensal rodent populations in urban settings Daiter et al., 1993. At least 12 species of small mammals, predominantly those rodents that live in highly moist environments, are known to carry Leptospira. Reported sero- prevalences in small mammals were 3–12 in water voles, 11 in muskrats and 5 in Microtus voles Tokarevich et al., 2002. The most common serogroups of Leptospira found in wild rodents were grippotyphosa 65, javanica 21, and pomona 12. Recent serological surveys of leptospirosis in animals in Croatia indicated that 13 of small rodents were seropositive Cvetnic et al., 2003. In this study, antibodies to diffe- rent serovars of leptospires were identified in 15 of field voles, 11 of yellow-necked mice, 9 of bank voles and 7 of wood mice.13.4.2.7. Bartonellae
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» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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