Impact of poverty Cockroaches
2.3.2. Cost of control and management
The costs of cockroach control services vary greatly, depending on the pest species and locality. Because it is generally assumed that cockroach IPM programmes cost more than conventional pest control services, a comparison of conventional programmes with IPM programmes is insightful. In 1998, in the north-eastern United States, conventional pest control services cost US 65 an hour, whereas IPM services were US 80 an hour Rambo, 1998. However, it is assumed that IPM should actually reduce the frequency of visits and consequently the labour costs in the long term. Williams and colleagues 2005 reported that after all costs were considered, conventional service was US 8.57 per unit and IPM was US 7.49 per unit. In their study, cockroach infestations were very low in schools, and costs would probably have increased if they had been more severe. Brenner and colleagues 2003 set up an IPM-based programme for low-income house- holds in New York City, involving monitoring, baiting, cleaning and structural repairs. The costs for IPM were US 46–69 per unit in the first year and US 24 per unit in the following year. In comparison, conventional chemical controls cost US 24–46 per unit and involved no repairs or structural modifications to the apartments. In IPM program- mes, the number of cockroach infestations declined by 50 over six months. In public housing in Portsmouth, Virginia, the costs of conventional crack-and-crevice treatments with sprays and dusts were compared with vacuuming, baits and insect growth regulators IGRs for controlling German cockroaches Miller Meek, 2004. The average costs for IPM and conventional treatments were US 4.06 and US 1.50 per unit, respectively. After eight months, cockroach populations decreased about 80 in IPM units, compared with a 300 increase with conventional treatments. In 2006, in the United States, the cost of treating an apartment was about US 150 and buildings typically cost US 1200 or more to treat. Commercial accounts, such as restau- rants, typically cost US 250 a month to treat.2.4. Impact of poverty
The physical and sanitary conditions of a dwelling greatly affect the likelihood of coc- kroach infestations, especially of German cockroaches. Bradman and colleagues 2005 Cockroaches 64 decades, and they may spread porcine parvoviruses Tarry Lucas, 1977. In addition, German cockroaches may serve as an important mechanical vector of porcine verotoxi- genic Escherichia coli. As a result, Zurek Schal 2004 recommend the incorporation of cockroach IPM into disease prevention and control programmes in the pig-farming industry. Kopanic and colleagues 1994 reported that American cockroaches collected at feed mills and poultry hatcheries were positive for Salmonella spp., raising concerns about infecting hatched chicks and farm flocks. Fischer and colleagues 2003 reported that nymphs of oriental cockroaches were capable of transmitting paratuberculosis Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis and avian tuberculosis Mycobacterium avium ssp. avium in their faeces. Isolates from the cockroaches and their faeces were virulent to chickens. American cockroaches, feeding on the faecal matter of opossums that carried Sarcocystis falcatula , were potential carriers to non-American psittacine birds, especially cockatoos and cockatiels. The birds contracted the disease by either eating infected cockroaches or possibly contaminated food Clubb Frenkel, 1992. Even though numerous studies have demonstrated the ability of cockroaches to pick up and later excrete or transfer pathogens, definitive evidence that cockroaches are vectors for human disease is still lacking. However, the prevalence of cockroaches near human and animal wastes, human food, and human environments creates sufficient concern about their role as vectors. This potential health threat necessitates the control of coc- kroaches in food handling areas, hospitals, animal-rearing facilities, zoos and human resi- dences. The incidence of cockroaches in commercial food-handling establishments exceeds 50. In New York City, 53 of the 18 000 food establishments inspected in 1976 had insect infestations Dupree, 1977. In a random survey of 100 commercial food-handling esta- blishments in Los Angeles, 62 were infested with German cockroaches. All of them had professional pest control service Rust Reierson, 1991. It is likely that as many as 70 of all food-handling establishments have cockroach infestations. 2.3. Public costs 2.3.1. Cost of health-related conditionsParts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
Show more