Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
8.4.2. Monitoring and surveillance
A prerequisite for managing urban birds and their potential public health hazard is the nitrogenous compounds contained in bird droppings, and the birds thus serve not as hosts for these microorganisms, but as lessorsfor them. This could pose a public health hazard in the case of mass communal roosts or large nesting colonies of birds at urban or subur- ban sites inhabited, exploited or attended by people. In these cases, airborne inhalation is the main means of infection in people, and it usually occurs during rebuilding or related work in contaminated areas. In general, the prevailing modes of transmission of pathogens from birds to people in urban areas are either via airborne or alimentary routes. An airborne, respiratory infec- tion is the commonest mode in, for example, ornithosis, avian tuberculosis, cryptococco- sis and histoplasmosis, while infection by ingestion might occur in, for example, salmo- nellosis, campylobacterosis, colibacillosis, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis and cryptosporidiosis, which are food-borne or water-borne diseases. Less frequently, some zoonotic infections in urban areas are transmitted by direct contact with birds, suffering from, for example, erysipeloid, streptococcosis, or pseudotuberculosis. Finally, arthropod-borne diseases such as Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis, Sindbis fever, West Nile fever, TBE and Lyme borreliosis are caused by haematophagous invertebrates such as mos- quitoes and ixodid ticks that acquired the infectious agent previously, by feeding on viraemic or bacteraemic urban birds. A number of ecological factors might affect the risk of bird-borne illness in urban set- tings. For example, bird species that have higher population densities such as feral pigeons; that nest in colonies such as colonial waterbirds, gulls and rooks; that roost gregariously such as starlings, grackles, corvids and gulls; and that congregate at water and food sources such as terrestrial birds or in other particular places in urban areas for mass moulting such as waterfowl in summer, migration stops and overwintering such as waterfowl and gulls are more important epidemiologically due to frequent interin- dividual contacts that enable effective horizontal transmission of disease agents than spe- cies with low population densities that live solitarily or in small groups. Habitat prefe- rences by birds also affect their epidemiological role. For example, aquatic birds, even in urban situations, attract higher numbers of haematophagous insects such as mosquitoes than do terrestrial birds, while woodland, ground-foraging birds are parasitized by ixo- did ticks. Avian mobility and migratory habits are other crucial factors; they make the transport and spread of various agents by carrier birds more effective. In brief, the most important factors that increase the risk of bird-borne infections are: • overpopulation of infected urban birds; • overpopulation of infected invertebrate vectors in the case of arthropod-borne diseases; and • enhanced, intimate contacts between people and infected urban birds or their habitats the latter case when urban birds serve as a lessor of the agent or both. Public Health Significance of Urban Pests Birds 263 262 effective decontamination of the soil under communal roosts infected with sapronotic fungi H. capsulatum is possible by repeated 3–4 times use of 3 formaldehyde Tosh et al., 1967; • reducing the number of nest boxes available for starlings; • trapping birds in nets or various bird traps and euthanizing the captured birds, if per- mitted; and • sterilizing birds chemically, with a treated grain bait, if permitted. These activities should be carried out in an integrated approach to bird management, since individual steps alone do not produce success. Furthermore, inspection and control measures must be performed by, or under the supervision of, veterinary public health agencies – and only when they are substantiated and necessary. Ornithologists, wildlife managers and citizen representatives such as consumers should be involved in imple- menting the control measures. The integrated approach to bird management also needs a public education component media and a legal regulatory component – that is, poli- tical support – as necessary parts of the process. Finally, a risk–benefit analysis should also be performed.8.4.4. Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
Parts
» TAP.COM - PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN PESTS - WHO/EUROPE - WORLD ...
» Risk of developing allergic sensitization
» Risk factors for developing asthma
» Public health impact of urban asthma
» Dust sampling Airborne sampling Comparison of various methods of allergen exposure assessment
» Cockroach sensitization and asthma
» Size characteristics of airborne mouse and rat allergens Residential exposures
» Dust mites Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Cockroaches Rodents Studies examining thresholds of exposure relevant to disease
» Comprehensive avoidance of dust mite allergens Multifaceted primary prevention studies
» Limited avoidance of dust mite allergens
» Targeting housing conditions of high-risk groups
» Smokybrown cockroach American cockroach Oriental cockroach
» Brownbanded cockroach Allergy and asthma overview
» Food contamination and disease transmission
» Cost of control and management
» Impact of poverty Cockroaches
» Public costs 1. Cost of health-related conditions
» IPM of cockroaches Cockroaches
» Baits Cockroach control: pesticide applications
» Alternative strategies Cockroach control: sanitation practices
» Biological control Conclusions Cockroaches
» Origins and natural history Habitats within the home
» Food Limiting factors Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» CEH Distribution in Europe and N orth America
» The building envelope Impact of building construction
» The ventilation and heating system
» Furniture and furnishings Overall effect of the housing environment on health or illness
» Sampling methods Dust mite and allergen inspection and detection methods
» Mechanical solutions Modifying environmental conditions
» Washing Dusting Dry cleaning Vacuuming
» Home disinfectants Electric blankets Bed heaters Freezing
» Sunlight Steam cleaning Cleaning
» Autoclaving Steam cleaning Temperature control
» Barrier fabrics Temperature control
» Habitat modification Carpets Physical control methods
» Soft furnishings Air filters
» Anti-allergy sprays Antimicrobial treatments Dehumidifiers
» Pesticides Building construction Methods of house dust mite control
» Control methods Medical practitioners Other
» Background Biology and bionomics
» Other species of Cimicidae that can affect people
» Evidence of resurgence in N orth America
» Future prospects Resurgence of bedbug populations in Europe and North America
» Importance as pests Economic impact Bites and health effects
» Conducive environmental conditions An integrated approach to bedbug management
» Physical removal Exclusion Physical removal and exclusion
» Inspection Detection Inspection, detection and education
» Heat Cold Controlled atmospheres
» Use of pest management products
» Benchmarks for success in bedbug management Conclusions
» Introduction Flea biology Fleas
» Health risk and exposure assessment
» Cost for control and management
» Cost of health-related conditions
» Flea exclusion and physical removal Pesticide applications for flea control
» Foggers General surface treatments IGRs
» On-animal products Conducive environmental conditions
» Pharaoh ant biology Overview of biology and distribution in Europe and North America
» Health hazards 1. Pharaoh ant infestations: pathogen transmission and contamination
» Pharaoh ant distribution and population monitoring
» Fire ant population assessment and monitoring methods
» Fire ant geographic range and potential expansion Fire ants: stinging incidents
» Fire ants: cost of eradication
» Physical exclusion Residual contact insecticides
» Insecticidal baits Fire ants: cost of health-related issues, control and management
» Efficacy of management practices
» Implementation of fire ant control programmes
» Confirmation. Determine where control is needed.
» Fire ants Emerging problems and policy options
» Introduction Biology and bionomics of filth flies in Europe and North America
» N uisance Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Myiasis Health hazards 1. Diseases
» Pesticide applications for fly control Granular baits
» Fly exclusion practices Crack-and-crevice treatments Biological control
» Ultraviolet light traps Sticky traps Jar or bag traps Window traps
» Attractants Perimeter treatments Fly management
» Togaviridae: genus Alphavirus Viruses
» Orthomyxoviridae: genus Orthomyxovirus Bacteria
» Coxiellaceae Anaplasmataceae Spirochaetaceae Bacteria
» Regular nonsporing Gram-positive rods Mycobacteriaceae
» Microsporidia Babesiidae Eimeriidae Protozoa
» Zoonoses and sapronoses of wild birds in the urban ecosystem
» Monitoring and surveillance Management implications 1. Benchmarks
» Techniques for dispersing birds in cities
» Control of wild and feral birds in urban areas
» Economic impact of wild urban birds on human health and of controlling birds
» Introduction Human body lice
» Biological factors Implications for public health
» Louse infestation in Europe and North America
» Physical removal Pesticides Louse management 1. Inspection and detection
» Socioeconomic influences Conducive environmental conditions
» Benchmarks for lice management
» Introduction Ticks of Europe and North America
» LB in Europe and N orth America
» Geographical distribution Lyme borreliosis
» Public health impact of TBE in Europe
» Geographical distribution Geographical distribution Epizootiology and epidemiology
» HME HGA Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
» Boutonneuse fever Rickettsia helvetica
» Clothing Tick removal Clothing impregnation Vaccination
» Host-centred methods Habitat manipulation and urban design
» Tick and tick-borne disease surveillance IPM
» Public activities Pesticide applications
» Surveillance and management Research
» Other mosquito-borne viral infections that cause encephalitides
» Malaria Mosquitoes as a pest nuisance
» Dengue haemorrhagic fever and yellow fever
» Dirofilariasis The spread of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne pathogens
» National reporting and Mosquitoes
» Mosquito control and management
» Sanitation and water management
» Adulticiding Larviciding Mosquito monitoring
» Use of predators biological control Passive protection
» Genetic control and transgenic mosquitoes
» Feeding Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Reproduction and life cycle of commensal rodents
» Behaviour relevant to control
» Movement Biology of commensal rodents 1. Description and natural history
» Population growth and socialization of commensal rodents
» Sewers and drains Association with urban infrastructure 1. Rodents in housing
» Case study 1 – rat bites in Philadelphia: identifying the factors contributing to risk
» Zoonoses of mice Public health risks in urban areas
» Case study 2: Fairhill case study
» Tree squirrels Types, distribution and abundance
» Chipmunks Ground squirrels, antelope ground squirrels and prairie dogs
» Hamsters Voles Types, distribution and abundance
» Beavers Types, distribution and abundance
» Rabbits and hares Types, distribution and abundance
» Francisella tularensis Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» California group viruses primarily La Crosse virus CTF virus
» Yersiniae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related bacterial and rickettsial agents
» Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne relapsing fever borreliae
» Toxoplasma Toxocara Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Babesiae Leptospirae Major rodent- and lagomorph-related parasitic agents
» Bartonellae Rat-bite fever agents
» Flying squirrels Ground squirrels and antelope ground squirrels
» Tree squirrels Voles and other microtine rodents
» Chipmunks Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Beavers Disease associations with particular types of rodents
» Rabbits and hares Old World mice
» Dormice N ew World rats and mice
» Introduction The impacts of anthropogenic transformations
» Risk factors for rodent- and lagomorph-related diseases Public health impact
» Costs, control and management of infestations
» Control and management of non-commensal rodents and rodent-related diseases
» Conclusions Non-commensal rodents and lagomorphs
» EU community-level authorization of technical grade active ingredients
» Acute toxicity The precautionary principle
» The substitution doctrine Special considerations given to children’s health
» Toxicity end-points Pesticide hazard identification
» Long-term effects Pesticide hazard identification
» Insecticide synergists N eonicotinoid insecticides
» Spot applications Primary exposure of non-professional users and secondary exposures
» Inhalation Routes of exposure
» Incidental oral exposure Routes of exposure
» Exposure potential Steps of pre-market risk assessment of pesticides
» Tiered approaches to exposure estimation: a basis for risk assessment
» Mathematical mechanistic models Empirical models Some existing models
» Statistical mathematical models SOPs and exposure scenario types
» Comparing pesticide risks from residential and dietary exposures
» Residential applicator exposure assessment
» Toxicity end-points and MOS Residential applicator exposure
» Future actions and data development
» Identification Establishment of threshold levels
» Inspection Evaluation of effectiveness
» Develop an IPM plan Employment of two or more control measures
» Definitions of IPM An integrated approach to managing urban insects and rodents
» Case study 3 Case study 4 Case study 5
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