Attitude in Language Review of Related Theories

The previous tables present the possibilities of the realization of the affect into unhappiness, insecurity, and dissatisfaction. The words as the realization are not limited to those in the tables, but any addition should pay attention to the semantic typology of the words. The main point of the categorization is the different domains of the feelings. Unhappiness is from the emoter, insecurity is from the trigger, while dissatisfaction can come from both the emoter and the trigger. Judgment is one type of attitude that evaluates people and their behavior. Different from affect, in judgment, the evaluation is not personal. It means that the evaluation is based on the norms or principles existed in the society. Therefore, the analysis or the categorization of this attitude is different from those in affect. Table 2.6. The Examples of Words Resembling Types of Social Esteem SOCIAL ESTEEM Positive [admire] Negative [criticize] Normality ‘how special?’ Lucky, fortunate, charmed, normal, natural, familiar, … Unlucky, hapless, star- crossed, odd, peculiar, eccentric, … Capacity ‘how capable?’ Powerful, vigorous, robust, sound, healthy, fit,… Mild, weak, whimpy, unsound, sick, crippled, … Tenacity ‘how dependable?’ Plucky, brave, heroic, cautious, wary, patient, … Timid, cowardly, gutless, rash, impatient, impetuous, … Table 2.7. The Examples of Words Resembling Types of Social Sanction SOCIAL SANCTION Positive [praise] Negative [condemn] veracity ‘how honest?’ Truthful, honest, credible, frank, candid, direct , … Dishonest, deceitful, lying, deceptive, manipulative, devious, … propriety ‘howfar beyond reproach?’ Good, moral, ethical, law abiding, fair, just, … Bad, immoral, evil, corrupt, unfair, unjust, … Judgment is divided into two major categories in relation to Social Esteem and Social Sanction. Social esteem works in society through oral culture Martin and White, 2005: 52. For instance, the judgment in relation to social esteem is not codified into particular rules or agreements. In the analysis, the judgment related to social esteem is observable in terms of the normality, capacity, and tenacity of the people. In the other hand, Social sanction is codified in written culture. The basis of the judgment can be found in written rules, regulations, or laws. Even, the written basis can be a religious basis such as that from church about how to behave. The consequence of having this written basis for judgment is the penalty for those who do not obey the written rules. The analysis of the judgment in relation to social sanction is observable in terms of the veracity and propriety of the people. The realization of judgment can be seen in the tables. Similar to affect, the choice of words might present different polarity of meanings in judgment. The interpersonal system along with the modalisation system might be congruent to the system of judgment. This frames the judgment in the modals system in English. The one-to-one connections are between normality and usuality, capacity and ability, tenacity and inclination, veracity and probability, and propriety and obligation. Thus, observing modality in English system might also produce inferences in the judgments. The third type of attitude is appreciation that presents evaluation to things or matter including natural phenomenon. Martin and White 2005: 56 divide this attitude into three categories. The first is the appreciation as our reaction to the things. This reaction is about whether the things attract attention or not. If a particular thing attracts attention, then, we can utter an appreciation that the thing is attractive. The second is the appreciation in terms of the composition of the things. The composition resembles the complexity and the balance of the things. The third is the value of the things being appreciated. The value is whether or not the things are worthwhile. As the judgment is congruent to system of modalization in English, Suzanne Eggins in Martin and White 2005: 57 suggests that appreciation is also congruent to mental processes. Reaction is related to affection, composition is related to perception, and valuation is related to cognition. For instance, some words as the realization of the judgment can be examined in the following table. Table 2.8. The Examples of Words Resembling Types of Judgment Positive Negative Reaction: Impact ‘did it grab me?’ Arresting, captivating, engaging, fascinating, exciting, moving,… Dull, boring, tedious, dry, ascetic, uninviting, … Reaction: Quality ‘did I like it?’ Okay, fine, good, lovely, beaut iful, splendid, … Bad, yuk, nasty, plain, ugly, grotesque, … Composition: Balance ‘did it hang together?’ Balanced, harmonious, unified, symmetrical, proportioned, … Unbalanced, discordant, irregular, uneven, flawed, … Composition: Complexity ‘was it hard to follow?’ Simple, pure, elegant, lucid, clear, precise, … Ornate, extravagant, byzantine, arcane, unclear, woolly, … Valuation ‘was it worthwhile?’ Penetrating, profound, deep, innovative, original, creative, … Shallow, reductive, insignificant, derivative, conventional, prosaic, … 2.1.5. Folktales and the Plots The discussion on Folktales should start by the discussion on the bigger umbrella namely the Folklores. Folktale is mentioned by Alan Dundes, amongst others, as one form of folklores in Haase, 2008: 359, in Sims and Stephen, 2005: 8, in Dundes, 2007: 55. Further, Sims and Stephens 2005 elaborate the definition of folklores as: Informally learned, unofficial knowledge about the world, ourselves, our communities, our beliefs, our cultures and our traditions, that is expressed creatively through words, music, customs, actions, behaviors and materials. It is also the interactive, dynamic process of creating, communicating, and performing as we share that knowledge with other people 2005: 8. That working definition is derived by negating the common assumption and conceptions about folklores. Some notions that they provide are that folklore does not need to be untrue or old fashioned, that it is regarded merely as another form of anthropology or literary study, and that is not high art, popular culture, or official culture. Consequently, the discussion becomes in need of defining the nature and the characteristics of folklores by the famous folklorist Vladimir Propp since he provides the structures of folktales by observing lots number of folktales. As a verbal art, art employing language, which first was spread orally Propp, 1984: 6, Zipes, 2006a: 3, Zipes, 2006b: 7 and 47, folklores need to be distinguished from literary works. The differential factors are those of the origin, the delivery and the changeability Propp, 1984, 6-9. Literary works always have authors and their readers. In other words, the recognition of literary works can be through their authorships and the readership, i.e. the discourse of the authors and the response from the readers. Different from literary works, the authors of a folktale as a part of folklores are mostly unknown. Propp compares analogously the existence of folklores to the existence of language. Similarly, a language has no author but it is well spread in and through societies, through time and space. The second differential factor is the delivery of both. Literary works are usually written while folklores are originally by the words of mouth. However, in the development, folklores are written as well although due to the obscure authorship, it brings an implication. The implication of the delivery method is that the folklores are easily manipulated or reinvented. This matter becomes the next differential factor about the changeability of both literary works and folklores. While literary works are stable, folklores are unstable or changeable. For instance, Tartar mentions that the story of Cinderella has been reinvented to many cultures by many societies with different adjustments and modifications 1999: 101. Similarly, from the south east Asia, the story of Bawang Merah and Bawang Putih has been reinvented to some versions. A version can be found in Mason’s book 2001 in a story entitled A Tale of Two Sister. In the story the settings and the names of the characters are adjusted to Balinese culture. Another version can be found in a book by Hashim 2009. The latter version an adaptation from Malayan peninsular and Indonesian Archipelago. Those three differences between literary works and folklores bring a particular significance in the way they are read and interpreted. The interpretation of folklores needs to consider the relationship between folklores and the reality. Folklores and reality are obviously connected and related. Propp mentions that there might be three types of relation between folklores and reality. Those are that folklores are derivation of reality, that folklores are the reflection of real life, and that the artists usually not the author, because of the obscurity of the authorship set their goal in representing the reality 1984: 38. The derivation of reality is observable in the naming of the characters, the objects, or the settings. In the case of the story of Bawang Merah and Bawang Putih, for instance, Mason 2005 adjusts the name of the characters into Bawang and Kesuna and the names of the settings are changed into those from Bali. However, observing the characters, they are not merely and easily direct reflections or representations of the reality. Their behavior, for instance, is not what actually happens in society, but the product of perception by the performers, narrators, or the storytellers, accordingly to norms and laws of thoughts. The thoughts might range from the economic, political, to religious concepts, and even to “the very religious-magic practice” Propp, 1984: 10-11. But, still the circle of thoughts is discursive, that the perception might be from the society and later influencing the characterization. In the folktales, possibly and consequently, characters are categorized into roles and, more specifically, oppositions. This is in line with the notion by Propp previously discussed about norms and thoughts. Even further, Propp mentions that characters might be divided into “good” and “bad” p. 29. Besides that the characters, settings, and the names of objects in the folktales, they are interesting because of the events and actions of the characters. Instead of presenting usual events and action from the reality, folktales employs choose things that are unusual. In addition, the narrators are more interested in actions and events. Propp notes that this is what makes them attractive p. 19. Bottigheimer mentions her view on the plots of folktales and differentiates it from those of fairy tales, that folktales “reflect the world and the belief systems of their audiences” 2009: 4. By observing the plot since folktales are stories though they are different from other literary works, the analysis takes folktales as narratives, since “the basis of narrative is the plot, and the basis of plot is actions” Propp, 1984: 34. The discussion on the theories of plot serves the narratology of literary works. Plot is different from story by definition. Plot is a set of events and actions that closely related to the characters by causes and motivations Chatman, 1978: 45. Stories, in the other hand, are only a set of events in temporal arrangements without any motivations and causal relationship. Thus, the qualities and the moral of the characters are defined throughout the plot Abram, 2009: 265. The fate or final condition of a character in a story can be understood in causal relationship to what she acts previously. Plots are characterized by the sequence of events. Abram mentions the basic sequence in a plot as the beginning, middle, and end p. 267, Booker, 2004: 218. Each sequence serves their function. The beginning starts the action by the characters that usually by introducing the settings and background of the story and the characters. In the beginning, the readers are expected to raise their curiosity to know more and continue reading the story. The middle is the continuation of the beginning in which a story is developed but still incomplete. In the middle sequence, the conflicts are arising and need resolution. The last sequence is the end. In the end, the story needs no more continuation. The readers are expected to be satisfied and expect nothing more. Observations and analysis of the plots of narratives needs more detailed types of plots to study how the narratives develop. Some theorists classify the types of plots into numbers. Among the theorists are Booker 2004, Tobias 1993, and Gozzi in Polti, 1924. Booker 2004 provides seven types of plots that are common in stories. He names some of the plots after the events or the actions of the hero or the main characters of the narratives besides comedy and tragedy that have been more common as types of plot. The plots by Booker are “Overcoming the Monsters”, “Rags to Riches”, “The Quest”, “Voyage and Return”, Comedy, Tragedy, and “Rebirth”. Each plot has their own characteristics and developments of events. Tobias delivers the types of plot by giving the notes and checklists on how to create storie s. He classifies plots into 20 major types, namely “Quest”, “Adventure”, “Pursuit”, “Rescue”, “Escape”, “Revenge”, “The Riddle”, “Rivalry”, “Underdog”, “Temptation”, Metamorphosis”, “Transformation”, “Maturation”, “Love”, “Forbidden Love”, “Sacrifice”, “Discovery”, “Wretched Excess”, “Ascension “, and “Decension”. Those numerous types of plot are as a response to the previous classification by Carlo Gozzi. Previously Carlo Gozzi in Polti, 1924 classifies plots into 36 types. However, Tobias claims that the classifications by Gozzi were outdated and half of them are no longer used 1993: 9. Therefore, the following discussion will review those by Booker and Tobias. Since Booker provides fewer number of plots, the plots seems to be more general. Thus, to consider them as the framework to put in the plots by Tobias seems feasible although some plots by Tobias does not fit easily to those by Booker. The first plot by Booker is “Overcoming the Monster”. As the name tells, the narrative must have at least a monstrous character. However, the monster in this case does not necessary take the forms of non-human characters. They might take human, animal, or the forms of the combination of human and animal 2004: 23. Besides their appearance in forms, the behaviors of the monster are also specific that they might be a predator, the holdfast that will take action after their presence is obstructed, or an avenger. Commonly, the monsters are egocentric and heartless that they always think about themselves 2004: 32-34. Basically, this plot would put the hero in opposition to the monster. The hero is the one with the opposite characteristics and behavior of the monster. The hero might kill the monster and get the prizes. As the climax, the hero makes a thrilling escape from the death in competing the monster. The development of the narrative in this particular type of plot is specific. Booker mentions, there are five stages of events in the narrative 2004: 48-49. The first stage is the Anticipation stage and “Call”. This stage is called the anticipation since the narrative lets the readers to be aware of the power of the monster. The power might be by the introduction of the monster itself or by the effects of the destructive power that it might bear. The “call” resembles to the call of action toward the heroheroin that she needs to confront the power of the monster. The call amplifies that there is an urgency to defeat the monster. The second stage is the “dream stage”. This stage is when the heroheroin prepares hisherself for combating the monster. The stage could be also seen from another perspective that the monster approaches the heroheroin. Both perspectives put the readers to the consciousness that the danger or the fear of the monster is still manageable. The third stage that leads to the climax is the “Frustation stage”. In this stage, the heroheroin faces the monster. The power of the monster makes the heroheroin seem small and powerless. They seem to be impossible winning the battle. They lack of optio n of winning. After all the stage is the “Nightmare Stage”. In this stage the heroheroin seems exhausted and losing from the monster. All efforts of the heroheroin bring about no result. But, the climax is when the monster takes a deadly blow from the heroheroin. This stage is the last stage of the plot, called “The thrilling escape from the death, and death of the monster”. The heroheroin finds a way to defeat the monster’s power. Eventually, the heroheroin receives the prizes or rewards. The second plot is called “Rags to Riches”. This plot might be observable in the story of Cinderella or Alladin, in which they finally possess richness that they do not possess in their past. The central characters, like in Cinderella or Alladin, are usually mentioned from inferior state of living. Even more, the inferiority exists since they are in their childhood. The opposition to the central characters is the dark figures. The dark figures are those who obstruct the main characters in pursuing their goals. It seems that the dark figures always present whenever the effortful main characters act to reach something. The dark figures might be the adults or those ‘near’ adult to the main characters. In Cinderella, for instance, the dark figures might be Cinderella’s parents adults or her stepsisters near adult. Like the monster in the first type of plots, the dark figures possess negative characteristics, as they might be hard-hearted, vain, short-tempered, and deceitful. However, they are not monsters since they are not the characters that the main characters should defeat. Their role, again, is in obstructing the main characters. The narrative serves a happy ending since the end of the narrative might be in one of two possibilities 2004: 55. First, the dark figures fade away and, second, the main characters become surrounded by light or become lighter that the dark figures looks less prominent. There are also five stages in this type of plot 2004: 65-66. The first is the “initial wretchedness at home and the call”. This stage draws picture of the settings and the characters in their initial condition. The common setting is in the main characters’ home. The main characters are usually in unhappy state or feeling inferior due to the settings or their surroundings. The call is similar to it is in the previous plot that in this stage the main characters think andor feel that they need to go outside of their home. The second stage is the “out into the world, initial success”. After getting out from their home, in this stage the main characters seems to find the milestone to their success. However, sometimes the milestones are of sudden that the main characters are not ready yet. Their lack of readiness might bring them to the crisis of the narrative. This is the thir d stage or the “central crisis”. In this stage, the dark figures take over the opportunity from the main characters. Becoming powerless, the main characters are said to be in their worst condition that nothing might help. The fourth stage is the “independence and the final ordeal”. It is called the independence since the main characters find their power to enlighten themselves. The power then helps them to stand before the dark figures. When the main characters successfully overcome the powerful dark figures, the narrative develops to the final stage. The stage is “final union, completion and fulfillment”. In realization, the main characters might win the prize. They unite with the Princes or the Prince. They might be also rewarded by a kingdom or particular wealth. This ending is commonly called a happy ending. The third plot sets the main characters as the heroesheroines to travel a quest after something in their life. This type of plot is “The Quest”. A typical characteristic of this plot is the journey. Along the story, the readers would read an experience of a traveler. The heroheroine in this particular plot goes along the journey accompanied by their companion. The companion might be one of four kinds. First, it might be a large number of undifferentiated groups. For instance, in the case of the large group which accompany Moses 2004: 72 in the book of exodus. Second, the company is the hero’sheroine’s alter-ego. Hisher alter ego might serve as accompaniment that the heroheroine seems to talk to themselves. Third, the companion is the foil of the heroheroine. It possesses opposite characteristics and qualities of those of the heroheroine. The role might serve the missing qualities of the heroheroine. The fourth kind of companion is more to complement the heroheroine. The combination of the hero and the companion makes them a unity. For instance, the hero might have a physical strength while the companion possesses intelligent ratio. The journey seems to worth discussing in this type of plot since it is where and when the plot development takes place. In the journey, as the narrative develops, the hero might find obstacles. The obstacles commonly come from monsters, temptation, deadly opposites, or in terms of the situation of the underworld. The monsters taking forms of non-human and animal characters are more common than those of human characters with evil power. The temptation as obstacle is more abstract than the monsters. Temptation might in the forms of hungers, love, throne, power, or even sexual desire. This obstacle occurs to detour the heroheroine from the quest. The deadly opposites are the limited choices that the heroheroine and the companions should take. Every choice that they take bears deadly consequences. In the journey, as the heroheroine meets the obstacles, they also might find helps. The helpers might come into flesh in forms of wise man or of supernatural guidance. Likely, Booker sets almost all the types of plots into five stages, including this type of plot 2004: 8 3. The first is basically and simply “the Call”. In this stage, the heroheroine perceives supernatural or visionary direction and guidance to travel to far places to find new life. This might be triggered by the condition of their living place that is un comfortable. The second is “The Journey”. In this stage the heroheroine decides to go outside of hisher place to follow the direction or guidance. In the journey, the heroheroine also meets the companions, the obstacles, and the helpers. The third stage is the stage of “Arrival and Frustration”. The goal of the journey is to find something. In this step, the goal is visible. If it is a particular place, the heroheroine might see it. However, a new obstacle would come between them and the goal. This obstacle is not the last since the last and the most difficult obstacle comes in the next stage. The next stage is “The Final Ordeals”. In this stage, the heroheroine faces the tests or conditions that will show the qualification of the heroheroine. The test would show whether the heroheroine is worth winning the prize or the goal. Eventually, after passing the final ordeal successfully, the narrative would proceed to the last stage, namely “The Goal”. In this stage, the heroheroine get the goal. Usually, the heroheroine set a new better life with the goal compared to the life in the beginning of the narrative. The fourth type of plot, which is still on the theme of journey, tells about “The Voyage and Return” of the heroheroine 2004: 87. Similarly to “the Quest”, this plot tells about the heroheroine journey, but, differently, the heroheroine manages to go back home. The matter in this plot is the journey from ‘normality’ to the ‘abnormality’. Basically, the heroheroine goes to abnormal world, gets trapped, and manages to safely return to the normal or familiar world. The unfamiliar worlds might be natural or societal. If it is natural, usually, the heroheroine is stranded in a dessert, with lack of resources. If it is societal, the heroheroine might visit places of strange people and civilization. The point is that the new world does not really suit with the heroheroine. Therefore, Booker notes that in this type of plot, the observation should pay attention to the way the heroheroine goes to the new world, the nature of the new world, and the effect or impact of the new world and the experience to the heroheroine. Once more, Booker divides the stages of the plot into the number of five 2004: 105- 106. First, the stage is “Anticipation Stage and ‘fall’ into the other world”. The anticipation lays in the introduction of the nature of the heroheroine. This stage defines the normality of the settings. The settings are the points of departures of the journey from the normal world to the abnormal one. In this stage also, the heroheroine, by any reasons, falls into the new world of abnormality, which might be very different from the origins. The second stage is the “Initial fascination of Dream Stage”. As the name of the stage tells, the heroheroine feels the fascination of the new world. Everything seems different from hisher home and unfamiliar. Gradually, the new world bothers the hero heroine. She wants to go back to hisher home. By this feeling, the story has developed into the stage of “Frustration Stage”. The unfamiliarity or the abnormality of the new world becomes a treat to the heroheroine. The treat becomes dominant and puts the heroheroine into dangers. This is the signal that the story has entered the “Nightmare Stage”. The treat is as dangerous as if it might take the heroheroine’s life. The final stage is the “Thrilling Escape and return”. The heroheroine makes hisher escape to the home. In this stage also the answer on the effect of the experience travelling into the new world could find the answer. The fifth plot is the famous kind of plots namely Comedy. It is famous, since side by side with its counterpart, Tragedy, this particular type of plot arose long time ago dated back to the ancient Greece 2004: 108. The main feature of a comedy is the transition from obscurity to the enlightenment or recognition. However, different from the previous types of plots, Comedy comes very various in the realization but the essential arrangement of a comedy is about 2004: 150, first, the story begins with the confusion of the characters. They face uncertainty and frustration resulted in a quarrel or competition among them. Second, the characters undergo a nightmare due to the frustration. The frustration seems taking control of the chara cters’ life. Third, the situation changes and the confusion disappear. The light comes over the uncertainty and everything becomes clear. In addition to the general arrangement of Comedy, there are four features of a comedy that readers might find 2004: 116-117. First, accordingly to the change of state, dark characters that seems to be antagonist becomes deliberated. They change their state after recognizing themselves. Second, still in relation to the first, the change of state of the characters creates a characteristic twist. In the narrative, the characters are finally recognized to be someone else other than the readers might expect in the beginning of the narrative. The identity of the characters is exposed literary. Third, in some cases, the characters need to find their completeness. Therefore, fourth, division or separation is fixed. For instance, problem such as divorce finds a resolution in remarriage. The sixth type of plots is the Tragedy. This particular type of plot is eminently related to sadness. Even though it might be true, the sadness should be defined as that something has gone wrong and something has been missing from what it is supposed. This sadness is typically caused by the reckless of the heroheroine. From the very beginning of the narrative, the heroheroine needs to struggle with himherself upon receiving the call. In addition, in the other plots, the heroheroine receives the call and dedicates all what they have to the call. Differently, the heroheroine faces the temptation. The temptation prevents the heroheroine for a while before accepting the call. The temptation might be parts of the heroheroine personality, such as desire, appetite, or hunger. The temptation is so big that sometimes it becomes an obsession. The arrangement of Tragedy falls into number of five 2004: 156. The first, the narrative introduces the “Anticipation Stage”. In this stage, heroheroine is introduced as the central figure. In the introduction of the heroheroine, she has desire and needs to fulfill hisherself. The heroheroine looks for gratification for the unusual thoughts and actions followed the thoughts. The second stage is the “Dream Stage”. Like dreaming, the heroheroine finds it well after committing the actions on the basis of what they thought. The heroheroine grasps certain gratification on the actions. The third stage is the “Frustration Stage”. In this stage, the heroheroine conducts dark and evil acts because she could not find comfort. She might feel insecure about life. However, the actions that the heroheroine takes bring worse consequences. Then, the narrative proceeds to the “Nightmare Stage”. In this stage, the consequences of the actions go out of the heroheroine’s control. The feature of this stage is also the despair of the heroheroine. She tends to break the bonds of loyalty and friendship, and even the bonds of love. The last stage is the “Destruction or death wish Stage”. The heroheroine very often faces hisher death in this stage. With little luck, the heroheroine might end up living alone. The last type of plot is the narrative of “Rebirth”. This particular plot colors up the story of Snow White and Sleeping Beauty. The arrangement of events in this plot falls into five stages also 2004: 204. However, Booker does not attach a particular name to each stage. He mentions the events happening in the stages. The first event is by the incident that a young heroheroine falls into the dark power. The state of being young seems to be significant since in the end of the narrative, she will be born again, not physically but might be mentally or psychologically. This initial event also introduces the dark figures that bring about the power. Sometimes, the effect of the dark power is also mentioned. The next event is the time when everything seems alright. The threat from the dark power seems gone. The life continues as if there is no threat. However, this situation only lasts for a while. Actually, the threat still exists and it appears once more. After the second coming of the dark power, the heroheroine lives in the state of living death. It means that they are alive but seems like if they are dead. Passively, the heroheroine stays in this state. The people around the heroheroine try to find a way to resurrect the heroheroine. The dark power seems to gain the triumph. However, finally, the resolution comes. Usually the carrier of the solution for the hero is the heroine, or for the heroine is the hero. Even though Tobias 1993 classifies plots into 20 types, generally those plots can be grouped into seven groups yet not into those by Booker 2003 since they might not fit exactly. The plots proposed by Tobias and Booker would overlap in some parts, but not all. The first and biggest type of plots by Tobias consists of plots in which the characters undergo changes. In this group, the plots are called “Maturation”, “Temptation”, “Metamorphosis”, “Transformation”, “Sacrifice”, Wretched Excess”, “Ascension”, and “Decension”. Those plots focus on the change of t he characters. The “Maturation” 1993: 160 tells the change of the characters from their childhood into their adulthood. The plots center the attention to both moral psychological growths of the characters. The conflicts or the climax of the plots lay on the acceptance to the changes by the characters. Somehow, this plot is similar to “Comedy” types by Booker that in the end the characters reveal the true characteristics. In the beginning, the characters might be unaware of their own life and characteristi cs but in the end, they are enlightened. The “Temptation” 1993: 138 sets the changes of the characters from their inner side. The characters change due to the conflict in their mind. This type of plot is near to morality or moral teachings. The change of the characters is from the low moral state into higher one. The conflict is by the dilemma faced by the characters to take decisions. In some part, the plot might be a part in “Tragedy” by Booker. In Booker’s tragedy, the hero tries to find justification of hisher deed caused by temptation. However, in “Temptation” the ending is different in focus. Booker’s tragedy focuses on the characters’ degraded life while in Tobias’ temptation the focus is on the elevation of the characters’ morality. The “Metamorphosis” 1993: 146 obviously renders the nature of change. Often the change is not only in the inner personality but also in the appearance. Tobias mentions some famous examples of this type of plot such as the “Frog King” and “Beauty and the Beast”. In the plot the protagonist is being cursed and the cure is love. The point of the plot is the change back of the protagonist into the previous state or even to the death. In this case, therefore, this plot might ended similarly as Booker’s Tragedy in which the protagonist dies or as Booker’s Quest in which the protagonist gains better state of life than the previous state. The “Transformation” 1993: 153 also resembles the meaning of change, the change of form. This plot is a more specific version of “Maturation” that the story takes a look at particular stage of life of the characters. The stage is when and where the characters change in their life. This plot is a kind of self-examination of the characters to find out the wisdom or the nature of themselves. Tobias mentions that in this plot sometimes, possibly, “the price of wisdom is certain sadness” p.159. Putting Booker and Tobias side by side, this plot might be a combination of Tragedy and Comedy. For the tragedy part, the sadness of the characters might be the evidence and for the comedy part, the revelation of the nature or the wisdom is the sign. The “Sacrifice” 1993: 191 is similar to the moralistic Temptation. The sacrifice of the protagonist is central. The sacrifice might be either physical or mental. More importantly, the sacrifice needs to level the moral state of the characters from a lower state to the higher state. The detailed events in the plot should tell the progress of the sacrifice and the decision of the characters. They should show the dilemma faced by the characters. The progress is similar to Booker’s Quest that the main characters take decision and sometimes face dilemma. However, the ends might be similar to Booker’s tragedy that the impact of sacrifice is the limited condition of the characters. The “Wretched Excess” 1993: 209 is closer to Booker’s Tragedy. It focuses on the psychological decline of the characters. The plot relies much on the causal relationship that every action of the characters should be on purpose that will bring consequences toward them. The conduct or behavior of the characters is the reason of the change of the characters. The last two plots in which the characters undergo changes are the “Ascension” and “Decension” 1993: 218. Tobias writes those plots in a chapter. This might be because the plots are very close and general in terms of the progression. They are about changes and are opposites one to another. Both of them focus on a single character and hisher development. In Ascension the character undergo rising plot, in which she progressively succeeds in life. In Descension, the character falls and the fall is because the character not because the settings or circumstances. The next group is in which the plots are about the freedom of the main characters. In this group, two plots serve the story about getting the freedom, namely “Rescue” 1993: 86 and “Escape” 1993: 93. In Rescue, the typical roles of the characters are the hero, the villain, and the victim. Major point is on the action of the hero in rescuing the victim from the villain. Since in the plot there are the hero and the villain, the moral argument is as clear as black and white. In this plot, there are three dramatic phases. The first phase is the separation in which the victim is being separated from the place or the person she belongs to. The second is the pursuit in which the hero appears and pursues the villain to get the victim back. The third is the confrontation and reunion. The hero confronts the villain and reunites or gets the victim reunited with the person or the place she belongs to. The Escape is similar to the Rescue. However, in the Escape, the hero becomes also the victim that she needs to rescue. The plot starts with the state of the hero being imprisoned by the villain. The hero progresses by several trials of escape. Not every trial is successful yet the last when finally the hero might set hisherself free. Reviewing back to Booker’s plots, these two plots resembles to the “Overcoming the Monster” one. The villain is the monster that the hero should confront. The next group is about competition among the characters. In this group, there are three plots namely “Rivalry” 1993: 124, “Underdog” 1993: 131, and “Revenge” 1993: 99. Rivalry draws competition between the protagonist and the antagonist. They struggle for power or domination. The phase of rivalry starts with the domination of the antagonist over the protagonist. In this phase, the protagonist suffers and the antagonist wins. The next phase is in which the protagonist gains empowerment and turns the table. At last, the protagonist restores the power and hisher position. This plot is also moralistic that in the end the wining of the protagonist is based on the moral judgment or values. This plot is similar to Booker’s Rags to Riches in terms of the progression and the goal. In the Rags to Riches, the dark figures also takes opportunities from the hero but later by fortune the hero gets the power again. The second plot in this group is the “Underdog”. This plot is a kind of variation to the Rivalry. The difference is in the inequality of power that the protagonist and the antagonist might have. In this plot, the protagonist is often the less powerful one. The competition is clearly between the weak and the strong, the powerful and the powerless, or between the poor and the rich. However, in this plot the underdog gains the triumph over the upperdog. Another plot colored by competition is “Revenge”. In revenge, the focus is that the protagonist tries to take revenge on what the antagonist has done to hisher life. The hero might be wild, but in doing the revenge she should in line with the society moral justification. The hero’s normal life is disturbed by the antagonist committing crime. The crime is rea lly influential and significance to the hero’s life. In taking revenge, the hero pursues justice by his her own since the official might not be satisfying to them. In the plot, then, the hero confronts the antagonist and conducts the revenge. In the end, the hero might be successful or failed. Tobias also provides types of plot in which the main characters do actions of searching and finding. The plots are “Quest” 1993: 59 and “Discovery” 1993: 201. In the Quest, as the name is identical with Booker’s The Quest, the plot is about the search of somebody, something, or someplace. The plot relies on the causal relationship between the events. Therefore, the reason for the hero to take the quest must be clear. The object of the search is also something to the hero not only an excuse p.69. The hero should be initiated to conduct the quest for logical reasons. In taking the quest the hero also might take companions. This is to avoid the plot to be too internal. In the end, sometimes the object found is different from the expectation. In “Discovery”, the focus is on the character not on the actions of the character. However, in this type of plot, the character can be understood by the actions in performing the discovery. The discovery is mainly about searching the nature of human being. While the “Quest” and “Discovery focus on the characters, the next two plots focus on the journey or the experience of the characters. The plots are “Adventure” 1993: 71 and “Pursuit” 1993: 79. In Adventure, the focus is on the journey rather than on the character doing the journey. The story is decorated by new places and often they are strange. In this part, it is similar to Booker’s “Voyage and Return”. However, differently, the search never ends at home. Tobias also adds that in Adventure, the characters might fall into romance. “Pursuit” is another plot focusing on the journey or the experience of the characters. In this plot, the experience is the acts of pursuing something. Therefore, the pursuer and the pursued should be made very clear 1993: 80. Tobias mentions that this plot is like the game of hide and seeks p. 79. There are three stages in this plot. The first is the establishment of the ground rules for the chase. In the rules, the explanation of the characters and their potentials are introduced. Second is the introduction or the establishment of the stakes. The third is starting the race with a motivating incident. The incident should start the race and be able to be maintained as long as the race happens. The next group of plots is about love. The first is called “Love”. From the name, among the characters must be lovers. To raise the climax, the lovers might find obstacles in their love or for their love. The lovers might not be suited for reasons. Booker 2003 does not specifically have this type of plot. However, if the end of Love is that the characters or the lovers live alone, then, it is similar to Booker’s Tragedy. In line to the tragedy ending, Tobias mentions that this plot might ends sadly. Generally speaking, the lovers should deal with inner and outer obstacle, in terms of their feelings and their surroundings. The next plot called “Forbidden Love” is more likely to Booker’s Tragedy, not only to the ending, but also to the root or the cause of love. The forbidden love is against the convention of the society. In other words, the characters conducting forbidden love is morally low in a society. The lovers find justification and it often results in negative impacts. There are three phases in the Forbidden Love. The first is the introduction of the characters as the lovers and the definition of the social convention that they might break. The second is the impact of their love in relation to the society’s response. They might deal with great pressure from the society. The third phase is the end of the relationship. In the end, the lovers are often undergoing separation, or even death. The last type of plots by Tobias is the “Riddle” in which the characters would play a game of cleverness. Basically, this plot is not similar to any plot types by Booker. In this plot, the readers seem to be involved into the story since the riddle might not only for the protagonist, but also for the readers to solve. The structure of this plot falls into three phases. The first is the general overview of the riddles. The overview might be the characters and the settings of the story. The second phase is the riddle itself. The relation of the riddle to the characters and the detailed setting previously introduced. The third is the solution of the riddle. In the end of the plot, the riddle might be clearly solved, or might be left unanswered clearly.

2.2. Review of Related Studies

Previously similar studies on CDA and Folktales had been conducted. Kristanti 2012 conducted a thesis entitled The Capitalism of Tobacco Industry and the Freedom of Choice in Jason Reitman’s Movie Thank You for Smoking: A Critical Discourse Analysis to see the ideology of capitalism in the movie. Her object was a movie since in movies ideologies can be found. For the textual analysis she also employed Systemic Functional Linguistics, especially on the metafunctions, the ideational and interpersonal functions. This study is similar to the one by Kristanti in terms of the methodology since they follow Critical Discourse Analysis methods. However, they are different in terms of the objects of study and the purposes. This study is practically intended to promote Indonesian literature and culture as part of Asian Literature and World Literature since the object of the study are the folktales from Indonesian societies. Another study was conducted by Guijarro 2010. The study wanted to observe the strategies done by the writer of a tale to engage the readers and the participants of the tale. Guijarro employed Systemic Functional Linguistics in the analysis to find out the implication of the use of interpersonal meaning to the readers. The analysis of the interpersonal interactive meaning of the verbal and visual elements in The Tale of Peter Rabbit reveals that both the verbiage and the illustrations combine to reinforce the reader’s viewer’s identification with the main character in the story. The study conducted by Guijarro was more to stylistic study than CDA since it focuses on the effect of the use language. However, this study is similar in terms that the object of the study is a tale, which is a literary work. There is also a study on Folktale conducted by Ruebel 1991. He tries to relate the classical folktales to the political actions. He proposes that the preservation of heroic legends was motivated by social or political considerations. In the study the analysis was sociocultural historical. Ruebel does not employ linguistic analysis. This study is related to the one conducted by Ruebel in terms that it observed folktales. However, it is different since this study uses CDA and linguistic approach. By putting CDA as the framework, this thesis might take many perspectives in observing folktales. Similar to Ruebel who analyses folktales as political actions, this thesis takes closer observation by embracing linguistic analysis. Thus by providing the hard data of linguistic evidences, the political agenda contained in the folktales might be addressed more objectively. Critical Discourse Analysis is applicable to analyze folktales. A study by Roy 2008 shows that the analysis on Folktales might fulfill the goal of CDA that is to reveal the hidden ideologies of a text. Roy intends to explicate the existence of ideology in Asian Indian Folktales. For the study, he takes the data from children picture books from Lima and Lima 2001 in the section “Foreign Land: India”. The book is indeed an anthology series of Asian Folktales. From the section, he chooses 13 books related to India. The background of the study are that the United States of America is multicultural, the needs of the children to recognize the cultures and the languages in their surroundings, and the notions by Schwarz 2002 “seperate but equal” in relation with any cultural segregation in the USA. The books become powerful in CDA since the children as the expected readers do not really have access directly to get in touch with the culture. Thus, books are the means of delivering the introduction of the cultures. Roy’s purpose is in line with the purpose or the goal of CDA that he wants to find out if there is a prior Euro American ideology playing in the texts and illustration appearing in the selected books. Further, he intends to clarify what pictures of India that are accessible to the US- American children and how those pictures shape the children’s perception. As the result, by classifying Indian cultures as the ‘other’, Roy sets the opposition between the cultures of the USA and of India. He explains that the prominent themes in the books are about nature and poverty and hardship. India is depicted as a place far from civilization by living at the mercy of nature. The picture of poverty is prominent by the words or sentences appearing in the stories. To add the idea of poverty, Roy is also interested in the prominent picture spiritual hermits in Indian culture. The hermits are ones with minimum belongings, who dedicate their life to find wisdom. Roy mentions that the picture of poverty sometimes starts the stories as the first line. Along with the picture of poverty, the theme of hardship is depicted as negative rather than positive. It reflects the life with no choices or options. The people live with hardship since they cannot dodge it. The folktales, therefore, contains, the hidden ideologies. The ideologies sets the opposition between western society and Indian or Eastern society, i.e. one way history of progress and development and modernity versus stagnation, underdevelopment, and traditional life. However, as CDA deals with power struggles and imbalance, above all findings, it seems that the folktales are the means to glorify the wealthy life styles of the children and other people living in the USA. Critical Discourse Analysis to raise awareness of oppression and power str uggles might be also conducted by examining children’s books. Rogers and Christian 2007 examine four books related to anti-racism topics. The books are selected because in the books racial themes are prominent. In the paper, Rogers and Christian address Whiteness studies instead of the opposite, i.e. Blackness. They assume that Whiteness is close to systemic privilege and normative oppression. Thus, they attend the ways Whiteness is represented in children’s literature, the authors’ attempt in recentering Whiteness, the linguistic and literary tools by the authors in presenting Whiteness and Blackness, and also the available political stance of the children as the readers. As the goal of CDA is to reveal the hidden agenda in texts, by the paper, Rogers and Christian purposefully examine the construction of race within children’s books that intentionally bring whiteness into surface. The prior theories that they use are that Whiteness is considered as normal and white people unearned privilege at the expense of people of color. In other words, people of colors need to work on something to earn the privilege and this condition is considered as normal by the society. The paper works on the intertextuality of the texts also since CDA relies on intertextuality. The intertextuality comes into flesh into the analysis on the network of the authors their intended and implied authorship, the intended and unintended readers, the characters, plot and narrators. This also includes the network in the production, consumption and circulation of the texts. In the paper, Rogers and Christian classify the themes or the discourses of the texts and examine the linguistic items as the hard data. They find seven major themes and discourses, i.e.: white talk, inter-racial conversation, noticing and naming race, hybridity, youth as racialized protagonist, context and privileging white feelings over the material realities of people. Besides the classification of the themes they employ also linguistic theories since CDA works on the linkages between talk at local, institutional, and societal levels. Thus, they employ Systemic Functional Linguistics in terms of the study of the genre, discourse, and style. Further, they also make use of the syntactic analysis of the texts, such as the transitivity of the clauses, the voice of the clauses, the implicit and explicit agency, metaphors, and the choice of words. As the result, they come up with the patterns employed by the children’s books in terms of the theories discussed before. They also find that the patterns do not occur in isolation. The patterns are influenced by larger societal themes of privilege effect, colorblind theories of race, a historicizing of racism, and other factors. By reviewing those previous studies, this thesis might serve as potential study for CDA. Those previous studies indicate that CDA might work on wide range of fields. The study by Kristanti 2012 deals with film, those by Guijarro 2010 and Ruebel 1991 deals with tales, and those by Roy 2008 and Rogers and Christian 2007 examine literary works. Guijarro, Roy, and Rogers and Christian prove that CDA for children literature is possible since folktales are political. The existence of folktales as literary products is political since they are results of ideological networks. This thesis deals with local folktales, therefore the this thesis is a potential study to conduct in terms of CDA. The studies by Kristanti 2012, Roy 2008, and Rogers and Christian 2007 employ rigorous examination of language. This thesis also employs rigorous study of language by using Systemic Functional Linguistics examining three aspects of meanings, i.e.: Textual, Interpersonal, and Expreriential meanings. Even more, this study comprehends more rigorous study on language by using the framework of semantic macrostructure and microstructure of the texts by van Dijk and also Appraisal and Attitudinal analysis by the choice of words in the texts. Hopefully, by the rigorous and systemic study of language, the result of this thesis might be more coherent.

2.3. Theoretical Framework

In this chapter, several theories have been reviewed. They are the theories on Ideology, Power, and Language, Critical Discourse Analysis, Systemic Functional Linguistics, Attitude, and Plot. To avoid redundancy, the detailed discussion of the theories will not be presented again in this section. Besides, this section will concern on putting the theories into the way they are employed together to solve the thesis problems. In this section the theories mentioned above will be put as the framework to solve the research questions. The discussion of Ideology, Power, and Language are going to be employed to present a clear definition and boundaries on the characteristics of Ideology. Therefore, the ideologies traced from the folktales are based on those definition and characteristics. The discussion of Power defines the exercise of power that brings submissiveness and dependency of the powerless groups as the consequence. The definitions and characteristics of power are employed to categorize the society into the opposition of powerful and powerless