. Ideology, Power, and Language

might be through its media. It might be a speech, a rule, or a threat of arms. In the case of this thesis, the instrument of the power relation is in terms of language of the folktales. Fourth, power relation analysis needs to observe the forms of institutionalization. The institutions that become the subjects or objects of observation are the opposing groups. They might be the trends of fashions, the legal structures, the functional institutions, or any complex system having purposes. Fifth, the analysis requires a degree of rationalization. Since the analysis of power relation needs to observe institutions, the rationalization is for connecting the institutions and the interpretations. The discussion of the power relation should be able to show the connectivity of the discussions for obtaining the objective of power relation analysis. Those discussions of power by Foucault draw a picture that power exists and is observable by the actual signs of it. Therefore, the exercise of power explained by Foucault also presents the actual conducts. For instance, in Discipline and Punishment , to gain the disciplinary power, four methods might be utilized. They are the organization of space, the organization of activity and behaviors, the surveillance often mentioned along with the idea of Panopticon, and the normalization. By the organization of space, Foucault argues that to discipline people particular places are beneficial, such as schools, prisons, and hospitals. The organization of activity and behaviors exercise power by setting similar activities for a timetabled period. For example, this control on behavior is like the way children hold a pen O’Farrel, 2005: 103. The famous idea of surveillance is also by Foucault through the idea of his Panopticon Foucault, 1977: 176-177 and Rouse, 2005: 99. The idea is to prevent people of doing wrong and also the will to do wrong. In the Panopticon model, the prisoners are being observed but unable to observer the supervisor. By doing so, the prisoners feel that they are being observed and ideally they will do like if they are watched. The last method is by normalization. This method is mean to cure the sick into normal Rouse, 2005: 101. For instance, the realization is exemplified by the test or examination. Through a test or examination, the ‘sick’ is gradually cured into the state of ‘normal’. Opposing views on the notion of power is presented by Baudrillard in Keller, 1989 that power might lay in the simulation of reality and not in real actions. Baudrillar d thinks that Foucault fails to analyze simulation of power, “in which signs of power is feigned, masqueraded and simulated, and the ways in which signs of power often displace and replace actual relations of force and discipline” 1989: 133. This opposition is followed by the explanation that the existence of power might lay in the media and communication means, which Foucault does not mention. This idea is inline with the previous discussion on idea of hegemony. Beside the opposition of Foucault versus Baudrillard, the notion power exists also in Javanese culture as one of cultures in Indonesia. Anderson 1990: 21- 23 mentions the different characteristics of power in Javanese culture from those in western culture. There are four major different characteristics. First, while the concept of power in western society is abstract, power is concrete in Javanese culture. The local beliefs and wisdoms in Javanese society locate power in everything such as trees, stones, or animals. Some still preserve the animism and dynamism in their life. Second, the difference is in the source of power. In western, the source of power is heterogeneous, while in Javanese culture, the source of power is homogeneous. Whatever the media, the power comes from the same source and to get the power, human has to perform some performances. Third, the accumulation of power has no limits in western culture, while in Javanese culture, the quantum of power is constant. Fourth, in western philosophy power is morally ambiguous. It means that the power conduct might lead to some morally positive or negative deeds. In Javanese culture, power does not raise the questions of legitimacy. The questions of legitimacy does not come from the existence of power but from the characters involved in the power relation conduct. In accordance with the discussion of power, which mainly by Foucault, the analysis of power relation needs instruments. Language is a channel that is used to deliver and to convey ideologies and Power. It is supported by the nature of the study of ideology proposed by Thompson 1990 as quoted by Wodak and Meyer: For Thompson 1990 the study of ideology is a study of `the ways in which meaning is constructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds. This kind of study will also investigate the social contexts within which symbolic forms are employed and deployed 2001: 10. Thompson hence notes that the study on text might reveal the meaning or ideologies being delivered or employed by particular society or group of people. Later on Wodak and Meyer add that a study on Critical Discourse Analysis is interested in the ways linguistic forms are used in various expressions and manipulation of power 2001: 11. It can be concluded then that any products of language are feasible channel to observe ideologies and power. However, the study on text only will not be satisfying without investigating the social context. The use of language to deliver power has become an object of language studies since language is a media to deliver purposes. For instance, in the pragmatic study of language, Leech 1983: 24 argues that “the principles of pragmatics are motivated in terms of conversational goals”. This argument indicates that the use of language is to ach ieve the user’s goals or motivations such as to exercise power. Language user can use switching, for instance, for their own purposes, i.e. “to convey nuances of meaning and personal intention” Trudgill, 1983: 123. That power has become the motivation in the use of language is also evident in the sociolinguistic studies. Sociolinguistics are interested in finding the relation between power practice in society and language. Holmes 2001: 374 notes that status and power influence “the way people speak”. For instance, Wardhaugh 2010: 7 mentions that language is utilized to show indentities and the identities are constructed from interaction and socialization. In the interaction and socialization, power might influence the identities presentation by regarding the social class. Particular language is employed by those belonging particular identities. Leech 1983: 126 mentions the condition that “someone in authority may use a familiar form of address to someone, who, in return, uses respectful form”. Before moving on from the discussion of power and ideology to the discussion of the more practical theories of Critical Discourse Analysis CDA, the fundamental school of thought serving as the parents of CDA needs to be elaborated. The school of thought is called the Postmodernism. Not all of the concepts and chronological concepts of Postmodernism will be discussed, but only the characteristics related to this study. Mainly, the discussion is about skepticism and it being contra-structuralism. The first notion related to Postmodernism is its being skeptical. Skepticism towards authority, received wisdoms, cultural and political norms color the thought of Postmoderns Stuart, 2001: 3 and Butler, 2002: 15. The color of contra authority becomes into flesh by the refusal of Grand Narrative by Jean Francois Lyotard Bertens, 1995: 119, Lyotard, 1984: xxiv, Sim, 2001: 9, and Sthop, 2001: 19. Grand Narrative is the big Grand structure and scenario that is believed by the society to be true. Usually, the grand narrative is by the authoritative being or party. By the authority, the grand narrative results also in central authority and further it promotes universal truth Bertens, 1995: 119. Lyotard in Sim, 2001: 9 classifies that in the postmodern spirit, any efforts is “to demolish the authority wielded by grand narrative, which he takes to be repressive of individual creativity”. By that standing in perspective, it seems that Lyotard is very strong against the grand narrative. However, later he clarifies that “what we are enjoined to do is not to fight the grand narratives but simply to stop believing in them” Sim, 2001: 9. But still, the idea of ignoring or stopping believing in the grand narrative is a kind of fighting the idea. The practical realization of the resistance toward the grand narrative, which later inline with the study of Critical Discourse Analysis, is the promotion of suppressed voice. This is the “Philosophical Politics” Sim, 2001: 10 that the purpose is “to help suppressed phrase regimes find their voices”. The suppressed party or regimes are usually unable to utter their voices due to the grand narratives. Further, this effort of speaking the suppressed voice is considered as the highest expression of postmodern philosophy. Buttler adds that the opposition between the marginalized against those with the power to disseminate the master narratives 2002: 15. Further, Butler mentions that the relation between discourse and power to oppose the dominant ideologies is the most important ethical arguments by postmodernist. In this thesis, submissiveness is regarded as an ideology since from the story the characters hold the customs tightly. This idea of submissiveness is believed and considered as normal. The existence of the ideology becomes transparent since it might be hold from unknown period of time in the past. Nowadays, the people live and do their daily conduct accordingly to the customs set by the society. The practice of ideology becomes a hegemony of ideology in the society. Submissiveness to custom becomes an object of Critical Discourse Analysis since the idea of submisisiveness brings about the practice of power imbalance. Ironically, this ideology brings an imbalanced power relation between the society and its members. In other words, the opposition in terms of power relation is between the individuals and the collective of individuals as the society. For instance, the society once might set rules and customs to organize their life. However, the rules become obstacles for the member of the society to hinder their life. Submissiveness to custom is an evidence power relation accordingly to the charateristics of power relation proposed by Foucault in Faubion, 2000. First, this ideology is transversal struggle. The submissiveness to custom does not exist only in a society, but almost everywhere where there is a society. The ideology does not exist in vacuum condition. Where there is a society there is at least a custom, and there is a struggle of power to the custom. In other words, this ideology is not unique to the society of Komodo islands. Second, the ideology has an observable effect to the society. The effect is caused by the power relation practice. In this case, the members of society which are submissive to custom is restricted by the rules and obligation, which are ironically set by themselves. The effect of the restriction is that the member might not conduct particular actions or activities since the actions or activities are not in line with the customs. In addition, in the folktales, any violations to the customs would bring direct consequences and often, the consequences are supernatural. The supernatural consequences will be discussed in the second ideology. Third, submissiveness to custom is immediate to the life of the writer of this thesis. In fact, this characteristic of power relation analysis is an addition to the first characteristic. The ideology of submissiveness is everywhere. As an object of study, the folktales belong to Indonesian folktales. Geographically, the existance of power contained in the folktales is close. The form of the object is also immediate to the writer and to the general intended and unintended readers. They are used to teach particular moral teachings to the readers. Thus, folktales are easy to read and understand. Fourth, the analysis of submisiveness to custom is a struggle for the status of the members as the individuals to be trully individuals. The customs or the rules in a society might limit and diminish the rights of the members. The limitation of the rights of the members is a result of the over obedience of the members. This thesis does not intend to propose an idea that the members should rebel against the rules or customs, but it intends to raise the awareness of the members that a custom or a rule might be change in accordance to their recent needs. Fifth, submissiveness to custom by the members of the society influences the opposition in terms of the knowledge, competence, and qualification. The the obligation to follow the customs might limit the competence of the members of the society. The members of the society are limited in terms of their actions. Customs are often closed for any inquiries. This fact limits the knowledge of the members of the society. The existence of some customs might have rational background but the members of the society are not expected to ask questions. The customs or rules in societies set also the qualification of the members. Some members might posses different levels of qualification and roles in the society. Sixth, the analysis of the submisiveness to custom is a response to the ideology. The revelation of the ideology is a response to the power imbalance due to the ideology. The revelation might have inluences in the ideological state. Further, in relation to the fifth characteristic, the revelation hopefully might raise the awareness of the less qualified members of society that they are systemicaly being oppresed. In the revelation of the ideology of submissiveness to custom, two parties are involved in terms of power relation. The first party is the members of the society as individuals. This party is represented by the characters in the folktales. They are the party who receive the impact of power imbalace practice. They are limited by the customs. In these cases they suffer from inability or degradation of life quality due to the violation that they have done. The second party is the society as a collective individuals. They are the representation of the customs in practice. The second ideology about dependency on supernatural being is a practice of power imbalance. The ideology presents two opposing groups. The first group is the human being and the second group is the supernatural ones. The first group is the one being oppressed and the second group is the oppressor. The oppression manifests in the powerlessness of the first group in the absence of the second group.

2.1.2. Critical Discourse Analysis CDA

Critical Discourse Analysis is not only a theory but also a method. CDA does not only provide views on its interests but it also provides the methodology or procedures to conduct a study accordingly to it Rogers, 2004: 2. Therefore, in the theory of CDA, the nature itself might be some characteristics that are operable in the study of CDA. Some theorists have their perspectives on what CDA is and how to conduct CDA. In this thesis, the writer took the major principles and characteristics of CDA that most of theorists agree with. The analysis also referred to the principles and characteristics. Those principles and characteristics might be on the nature and the objectives of CDA. One general objective of CDA is to reveal the transparent social practice and power relation. Rogers states that the study of CDA is often associated with the observation on power relation 2004: 3. Fairclough differentiates the critical and uncritical discourse analysis by that the critical one “is not just describing discursive practives, but also showing how discourse is shaped by relations of power and ideologies” 1992: 12. Further, Fairclough mentions that CDA reveals and explains the transparent relationships between the reasons and the actions done in societies as discursive practices, events, and texts, and also between social and cultural structures to observe the power imbalance and the struggles over power 1995: 133. This objective assumes that the study must go beyond the written or spoken texts. The observable texts are the product of ideology existing beyond them that are not seen. Further Fairclough mentions that CDA should explore and reveal how an ideology influences the production of texts, events, and discursive practices. More specifically, the ideology has to be in relation to power and struggles over power. In other words, the presence of power and the struggles over it is the core of ideologies preceding any texts, events, and discursive practices. The transparent ideologies addressed by CDA are often considered as normal and natural. Based on the objectives proposed by Fairclough above, the focuses of CDA are on the transparent practices caused by ideology and the power struggles . It presupposes that in society there is an “opaque” or transparent relationship of the actions done and the reasons behind the actions. For instance, people sometimes do not realize that they do some actions without thinking on the reasons. This is possible if the actions are considered as “natural” Jones, 1999: 30. That concept of what CDA observes is in line with what Locke proposes: a view of society as characterized by unequal power relations appearing as societal conventions. Dominant structures stabilize conventions and naturalize them, that is, the effects of power and ideology in the production of meaning are obscured and acquire stable and natural forms: they are taken as given2004: 32. The issue on power and dominance becomes the central topic in CDA. First related theoretical reason is that CDA is interested is sociopolitical understanding. The sociopolitical problems are those about dominance and equality. Further van Dijk mentions that the targets of CDA are the power elites “that enact, sustain, legitimate, condone or ignore social inequality and injustice” van Dijk, 1993: 252. Any researches in CDA should promote the attitude of taking side to the oppressed group. The purpose is to oppose against the powerful groups that conduct power abuse van Dijk, 2001: 96. The notion ‘discourse’ in CDA signifies the role of language in the study. It employs language analysis in revealing ideology or power struggles. Brown and Yule defines that discourse is the analysis of language in use 1983: 1. The implication is that the analyst should observe and study the language. Further, they mention that the analyst should investigate the use of the language. Weis and Wodak notes that CDA takes a focus on the relationship between language and power 2003: 12. This note focuses on the point that language is the point of departure in doing CDA. After reviewing some approaches to Discourse Analysis, Fairclough draws conclusions and the first is that the object of analysis is linguistic texts 1992: 35. Being detailed in language and mastering linguistics seems to be a benefit in conducting CDA since many linguistic aspects may be relevant to the critical analysis of CDA Fairclough, 2001: 126. Van Dijk also gives his comment that CDA needs a solid linguistic basis since the nature of discourse is verbal 2001: 97. The linguistic basis should be understood in the sense of structural-functional. This means that the use of language is not only to talk with the correct or grammatical structure but also to deliver meanings. Language analysis becomes the gate to enter the world of meanings in communicative events. On this notion, van Dijk states that “people use language in order to communicate ideas or beliefs or to express emotion and they do so as part of more complex social events” 1997: 2.Therefore, the analysis should take account on language analysis in the first place then it might go to the further discussion of discourses. As a scientific research, the nature of CDA is also definable by observing the way it works. The notion that CDA is not only a theory but also a method becomes the rationale that the methodology might tell what CDA is Rogers, 2004: 2. In this part, two perspectives on the conduct of CDA are discussed. They are the methodology by Teun A. van Dijk 2001 and Norman Fairclough 2001. The choice of the two experts fall since both of them present some similarities in their views of CDA. The study of CDA addresses social problems by expressing the voice of the researchers and the social problems themselves. It is a study of discourse analysis with an attitude van Dijk, 2001: 96. The definition of discourse analysis narrows in terms of the object of the study. In this case, it does not only the study of language in use but specifically discourse analysis should deal with the production and the reproduction of power abuse or domination. The attitudes mean the opinions and experiences of particular group dealing with social problems. The attitudes proposed by van Dijk are those that are complex and set by propositions 2001: 114. The attitudes seem to be central in the study of CDA. Both the researchers and the addressed social problems should evidently state attitudes. Consequently, in the study of CDA, observation and perusal of attitudes seems compulsory. Observation on the context becomes necessary to achieve the aims of CDA for it critically addresses social problems. The context is exemplified by mental models, ideologies, situations, aims, social groups, or institutions. Further van Dijk classifies the contexts into local contexts and global contexts 2001: 108. Global contexts are such the social, political, cultural and historical structures in which the communication occurs. The local contexts are “defined in terms of properties of the immediate, interactional situation in which a communicative event takes place” 2001: 108. For instance, the local contexts are the situation, the participants, the actions, the intentions, goals, norms, or beliefs of the participants or objects. CDA tries to reveal the transparent meanings from observable text and this meaning revelation requires observations on the semantic macrostructures and microstructures of texts. Semantic macrostructures are the topics of the texts and they are the global meaning of the texts 2001: 102. It draws a picture of what a discourse is about. These meanings are extracted from the local meaning or semantic microstructures. The extraction is a kind of interpretation of the expressed discourse. The discourse might be titles, headlines, summaries, abstracts, thematic sentences, or the conclusions of them. They can be also expressed in the discourse itself by thematic or topical words or sentences van Dijk 1980: 10 and 27.Language users for general should be able to make abstracts or summaries of those discourses. Further, the global meaning represents abstract principles van Dijk, 1980: 10. Macrostructures mainly serve a major function to define a global meaning that is derived from the local meanings. That major function can be specified into two functions van Dijk, 1980: 14-15. First, macrostructures are beneficial to organize complexmicro information. This means about the coherence of the micro level units. The macro meaning bounds the micro meanings into groups therefore they are easily recognized. Another benefit of having macrostructures is that complex information is easy to recall and retrieve. Second, macro structures are needed to reduce complex information. To organize and handle complex micro information, they need to be reduced. The reduction means to eliminate the irrelevant and unimportant complex information. Macrostructures are the representation of the reduced information. For conducting the macrostructure analysis, van Dijk proposes general rules namely Macro rules consisting of DeletionSelection, Strong DeletionSelection, Generalization, Construction, and Zero rules van Dijk, 1980: 46-49. The rules are applied upon the macropropositions derived from the texts regarding the microlevel analysis including the choice of words, the sentence structures, and coherence. DeletionSelection is the rule that allows the language user to eliminate the irrelevant propositions to the generalglobal meanings. Strong DeletionSelection is the process of analysis in which the locally but not globally relevant propositions are dropped. The Generalization is the interpretation process in macrostructure analysis. In the Generalization, the propositions are generalized into a group of similar semantic domain. In the Construction process, the similar propositions might be defined in a new denominator resembling a new semantic group. In this process, even a new predicate should be applied to denominate the general proposition. Due to the possibility that there might be propositions that do not need to undergo the processes previously described, van Dijk also mentions the Zero rules in which the local propositions directly resemble the macropropositions. The application of the macro rules needs to pay attention to two conditions. First, the order of the macro rules might differ from one analysis to others. The reason underlying the difference is that the object of the discourse might differ also. Further the analysts might also possible to have no access to the whole discourse. Second, the interpretation of the same text or discourse by the macro analysis might