36 they like the input and want to understand it, and when they get knowledge by clues.
This condition is also influenced by the students’ background knowledge so that large quantities of input is needed. Therefore, meaning-focused input deals with
how learners build their knowledge and bridge the gap between what they have already known and what they are going to know through listening and reading.
b. Learning Through Speaking and Writing
Learning through speaking and writing is called meaning-focused output since it refers to the productive skill. The output is learners are able to produce the
language in spoken or written form. The examples of this strand are talking in conversations, giving a speech or lecture, writing a letter, writing a note to someone,
and telling someone how to do something. Nation 2007, p.3, in addition, thinks that the condition happens in meaning-
focused output is similar to the condition in meaning-focused input, such as “learners write and talk about things that they are largely similar,” and “only small
portion of the language they need to use is not familiar to them.” For instance,
students listen and write at the same time, or read and talk at the same time as well. Student’s output can be other students’ input. In conclusion, meaning-focused
output is achieved when the learners are able to convey the message by using spoken or writen language.
c. Language-Focused Learning
Language-focused learning involves the deliberate learning of language features such as pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse
Nation, 2007, p.5. Deliberate learning is needed because learners should process the language features in deep. Moreover, there are some evidences that deliberate
37 learning results in large amounts of well retained useable knowledge and it is
effective for the learning of multiword units. The language-focused learning, hence, needs to be repeated in other strands frequently.
The activities in this strand include pronunciation practice, using substitution tables and drills, learning vocabulary from word cards, intensive reading,
translation, memorising dialogues and getting feedback about writing. Those activities add directly to implicit knowledge and systematic aspects of the language.
The students will be used to develop strategy and conscious of later learning. However, although language-focused learning is necessary to be provided in the
learning process, the portion should not be dominant.
d. Becoming Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
The last strand is fluency development, which means involving the four skills to help learners use what they already know. The purpose is learners are able to
receive and convey the message. Nation 2007, p.6 proposed that the fluency can be seen through activities, such as speed reading, skimming and scanning, repeated
reading, 432, repeated retelling, ten-minute writing, and listening to easy stories. Furthermore, encouragement is provided to push the learners to perform faster than
usual speed. It is also a good chance to give more input and output. Nevertheless, the explanation of unknown vocabulary and language features does not include this
strand. Therefore, the fluency strand should make up about one-quarter of the course time. It is time out from learning new items and is a time for getting good at
using what is already known. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
38
4. Instructional Design
There are some varieties of instructional designs which become references of this study. Some ID models which can be used to design English learning material
are ADDIE, Dick and Carey model, and Katheleen G raves’s model.
a. ADDIE Model
Cheung 2016 stated that an instructional design model aims to help educators ensure that they teach the appropriate material in an optimal manner to
achieve the goal. ADDIE model is one such instructional design model which has been used to develop curriculum in diverse fields such as library instruction and
online continuing education Cheung, 2016. This means this model can be employed to develop materials in any fields. According to Braxton, Bronico, and
Looms 2000, ADDIE model constitutes an instructional design which aims for a learner-centered so that effective learning can take place. This means that every
component of the instruction is influenced by the learning outcomes, which have been determined after a thorough an
alysis of the learners’ needs. Therefore, in this study, ADDIE model is an appropriate instructional design to design English
learning material that emphasize learner-centered. Rodgers 2002 develops ADDIE model into five phases, they are Analysis,
Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. In the Analysis, the students’needs, lacks, wants, existing knowledge, and any other relevant
characterisitics are analyzed. Analysis also considers the learning environment, the timeline for the project, and any constraints with the possible solutions. This phase
constitutes the foundation of all other phases Rodgers, 2002. Furthermore, Cheung 2016 added that the goals and objectives are formulated in this phase. The
39 output will be educational objectives and lists of tasks to accomplish the educational
goals. Then, those will be used to continue the next phase which is Design. The second step of ADDIE model is Design. In the design phase, a broad
overview or blueprint, and description of how to deliver the instruction to meet the objectives are created Cheung, 2016. The blueprint contains the idea, including
topics, various activities, assessments, and technical things in the lesson. Then it is arranged in good sequence, which is so called a syllabus. Similar opinion comes
from Rodgers 2002, who suggested that in the design phase, the systematic process of specifying learning objectives and test items, selecting a delivery system,
and sequencing the instruction are conducted. This step also considers the subject content. Subject content constitutes the selection of the specific knowledge facts
and information and skills step by step procedures, conditions, and requirements of any topics. A student’s learning experiences may involve subject content. The
content may closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. The teacher
has a choice whether to start the subject content first or listing the learning objective first regarding the achievement of the objectives and the students’ needs. Subject
content ideally starts from facts, concepts, principles, and problem solving. Indeed, the design phase produces clear concepts of the designed materials although it is
still in form of raw model. In the development phase,
Cheung 2016 stated that “each component of instruction is planned in as much practical detail as possible to meet the blue print
created during the design phase ”. This means the production of the contents, tasks,
and learning activities has to be made based on the previous phase. The contents include what will be presented in every unit, what tasks will be given, how the
