42
Figure 2.4. Dick and Carey Model adopted from Dick and Carey, 2009, p.1
The Dick and Carey model consist of ten components Dick et al, 2009, p.6. The first component is to determine what new information and skills you want
learners to master when they have completed the learning processes. The instructional goals are derived from the needs assessment, practical experience, or
performance analysis. After the goals have been identified, instructional analysis is conducted by determining what skills, knowledge, and attitudes, known as entry
skills, are needed. Instead of analyzing the instructional goal, there is a parallel analysis of the learners and the context. This will shape what skills learners should
learn and finally use. Based on the previous analysis, specific performance objectives can be formulated. The objectives must represent the criteria of
successful performance. Then, based on the formulated objectives, assessments are developed to measure what has been described in the objectives. The emphasis is
on relating the skills to the assessment requirements. The five preceding steps help the designer to move to the next step that is called develop instructional strategy.
The strategy aims to foster students student learning including such preinstructional activities as stimulating motivation and focusing attention, participation and
43 assessment. The strategy will also be based on the current theories of learning,
charateristics of learners, and characteristics of the media that will be used. Those features are used to develop and select materials and plan the activities. Some
examples of instructional materials are instructor’s guide, learners’ guide, power point presentation, video, audio, and so on. The important thing is that the materials
should be relevant and authentic for the learners. Following the materials, a series of evaluation is conducted to identify and solve the problems in the instructional
design. The evaluation can be formative or summative evaluation. The final step in Dick and Carey model is revising the instruction. Data from the evaluation are
interpreted and used to revise the product. The revision is actually not only for making the instruction better but also reexamining the validity and assumptions
because it is constantly conducted from the beginning steps. Finally, the last component is summative evaluation. Different from previous evaluation, this is to
obtain absolute or relative value of the instruction and occurs only after the instruction has been formulatively evaluated and sufficiently revised.
c. Kathleen Graves Model
Graves 2000 proposes some components to design a language course. She provides the components into a framework in which there is no hierarchy in the
processes and no sequence in the accomplishment. These components comprise setting objectives based on some form of assessment; determining content,
materials, and method; and evaluation. The designers are allowed to begin anywhere as long as it makes sense to them to begin where they do. Hence, what
makes sense depends on belief and understandings, context, and plan, and becomes the foundation for the other processes. The framework is presented in figure 2.5.
44
Figure 2.5. A Framework of Course Development Processes adopted from Graves, 2000, p.3
1
Defining the context Investigating the context is meant to help the designer find important
information when beginning to design a course. It answers the questions such as “what is the level of the students?” “how long is the course?” “where is the course
taking place?”. Some aspects of context that the designer should define are people, time, physical setting, teaching resources, and nature of the course and institution.
The more information obtained about the context can easily make decisions about what and how to teach.
2 Articulating beliefs
Graves 2000, p.26 stated that “beliefs arise from work experience, what you
feel constitutes success and “works” in each setting, what you perceive to be important or necessary”. In designing language course, the designer needs to figure
out their beliefs about language, the social context of language, learning and learners, and teaching. Belief about language is what being proficient in a language
means affects what you teach and how you teach it. Belief about the social context PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
45 of language can be seen from several aspects like sociolinguistics, sociocultural,
and sociopolitical issues. Belief about learners and learning is related to the roles that enable learners to learn and learning process that can be perceived as a process
of problem solving, whether it is inductive or deductive way. Belief about teaching is connected to role of the teacher in which the process of teaching can be viewed
on a continuum. The teacher transmits knowledge to the students and negotiate the knowledge, skills, and method of learning.
3 Conceptualizing content
According to Graves 2000, p.37, the process of conceptualizing content involves
thinking about what you want your students to learn in the course, given who they are, their needs, and the purpose of the course; making decisions about
what to include and emphasize and what to drop; organizing the content in a way that will help you to see the relationship among various elements so that
you can make decisions about objectives, materials, sequence and evaluation.
The process provides the designer with principles in what will be explicitly taught or focused on because the designer needs to tie the contents together.
4 Formulating goals and objectives
From Gra ves’s explanation about formulating goals ans obejctives, there are
some points that the reseacher can infer. Goals should be general, transparent, realistic, and relatively simple. The course explicitly addresses the goals so the most
class time spent to achieve the goals. Meanwhile, objectives should be more specific than goals and directly related to the goals. It means that objectives and
goals has cause-effect relationship. The learning objectives focus on what students learn and the process associated with it Graves, 2000.
