A text-based learning model for college general English.

ABSTRACT

Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

The fact that an English learning program is provided to equip college students with English skills poses several problems since every university, even every study program, likely has its own system. One of them is mainly because of the subjective judgements of the study program chairperson or English instructor. The effect is the different amount of the time allocation in every major. Some allocate only 2 credits, others 8 credits, or even more, depending on the regular or intensive courses, and considering the learning components, such as the learning strategy, material, media, and assessment. This may cause difficulties in a probable language learning program. Among these problems, one of the solutions is to provide an acceptable material that is arranged based on the language that needs to be acquired. The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three levels: general English, general academic English, and specific academic English.

In order to solve the problem of supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning model for the first level, i.e. college general English. The general English course is needed to provide the students with pre-academic English before they have English for academic and specific purposes. Thus, the problem discussed in this study is what is the acceptable product of the text-based college general English?

In order to answer the research question, the researcher employed ADDIE model for the instructional design. The researcher also adopted Borg’s and Gall’s R&D model as the research methodology. Interviews and questionnaires were conducted to determine the asumed needs and get validation from experts and users. The data were in the forms of quantitative and qualitative data. Due to the time constraints, the designed learning model was only verified with the students and instructor, and not disseminated to the public. The research was done in Duta Wacana Christian University and Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta. Both were chosen randomly.

The final result was a course book named College Just Ahead. The conceptual model was based on the some underlying theories. The provided materials were designed to achieve epistemic level, in which students are able to transform knowledge in certain language. Thus, reading, listening, writing, and speaking were integrated and provided in the learning materials. Nation’s four strands supported how those skills could improve students’ fluency. Then, Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) and text-based learning were used as the proficiency level achievement and approach in the instructional design as well. The conceptual model was presented in the iconic model, i.e. a book. The book consists of five units, which has two or three sub-units in every unit. The sub-unit consists of four parts, namely What did you know?, Let’s find out, Let’s practice, and Express yourself. What did you know? contains the introduction to the text and explore what students already know. Let’s find out provides the examples of the

text and learns the used language expressions. Let’s practice is activity in which the students construct a text. Finally, in Express yourself, students produce the text individually. The result showed that the product was acceptable by the mean score above 4.00 out of 5. Therefore, when it is completed, the course is more transferable. The students and instructors more focus on the process of acquiring an English competence, so that the product is more valid and reliable.

ABSTRAK

Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Fakta bahwa program pembelajaran bahasa Inggris diselenggarakan untuk membekali mahasiswa dengan kemampuan bahasa Inggris menimbulkan beberapa masalah karena universitas, bahkan setiap program studi, memungkinkan untuk memiliki sistem tersendiri. Salah satu penyebabnya juga dikarenakan keputusan subyektif dari ketua program atau dosen pengampu, sehingga membuat alokasi waktu yang diberikan berbeda. Beberapa program studi menyediakan 2 SKS sedangkan yang lain lebih dari 2 SKS, tergantung apakah program dilaksanakan secara intensif atau reguler dan mempertimbangkan komponen lain seperti fasilitas, media, strategi, dan penilaian pembelajaran. Diantara permasalahan tersebut, salah satu solusi yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan menyediakan sebuah pembelajaran yang bisa diterima dari segi waktu dan materi. Asumsi dasar dari materi yang dapat disediadakan dapat digolongkan menjadi 3 tingkatan, antara lain general English, general academic English, dan specific academic English.

Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti memutuskan untuk membuat model pembelajaran pada tinkat yang pertama, yaitu college general English. Bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa dibutuhkan untuk membekali mahasiswa sebelum mereka belajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan yang lebih khusus. Maka dari itu, permasalahan pokok dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti apakah produk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa yang dapat diterima?

Peneliti menggunakan ADDIE model dalam menjawab permasahan tersebut. Sedangkan dalam metodologi, peneliti mengadopsi teori Borg dan Gall tentang Research dan Development. Wawancara dan kuesioner dilakukan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan dan memperoleh evaluasi dari para ahli dan calon pengguna model pembelajaran. Peneliti hanya melakukan try-out kepada satu kelas dan produk tidak diseminasikan karena keterbatasan waktu. Penelitian dilakukan di Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana dan Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.

Produk yang dihasilkan berupa sebuah buku berjudul College Just Ahead. Model konseptual dari buku tersebut berdasarkan beberapa teori. Materi yang tersedia dirancang untuk mencapai tingkat epistemic dimana mahasiswa mampu mentransformasi pengetahuan dalam bahasa tertentu. Maka dari itu, keahlian membaca, mendengarkan, menulis, dan berbicara dikombinasikan dalam materi pembelajaran. The four strands mendukung mahasiswa untuk meningkatkan keempat kemampuan tersebut. Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) dan pembelajaran berbasis teks juga digunakan untuk menentukan tingkat kecakapan dan pendekatan dalam materi yang dirancang. Kemudian, model konseptual dituangkan dalam bentuk buku pembelajaran. Buku tersebut terdiri dari 5 unit dan setiap unit terdiri dari 2 atau 3 sub-unit. Setiap sub-unit terdapat 4 bagian. Bagian I, What did you know?, mengeksplor apa yang sudah mahasiswa pelajari dan pengenalan terhadap topik yang akan dipelajari. Bagian II, Let’s find out, berisi teks lisan maupun tertulis. Bagian III, Let’s practice, berisi latihan untuk mahasiswa. Bagian terakhir, Express yourself, berisi kegiatan mahasiswa membuat

teks secara individu. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa produk yang dirancang dapat diterima dengan skor rata-rata di atas 4.00 dari skor maksimal 5. Maka dari itu, diharapakan buku pembelajaran tersebut dapat menjadi salah satu bahan pendukung pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang membuat program lebih mudah untuk ditransfer. Mahasiswa dan dosen juga lebih fokus pada proses dalam mencapai kompetensi yang diharapkan dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Kata kunci: pembelajaran berdasarkan teks, bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa

i

A TEXT-BASED LEARNING MODEL

FOR COLLEGE GENERAL ENGLISH

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree

in English Language Studies

by

Christina Eli Indriyani 146332044

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2016

A Thesis

A TEXT―

BASED LEARNING

Ⅳ

10DEL

FOR COLLEGE GENERAL ENGLISH

2016

Dr'..1.Brsnroko Advisor

istina Eli 146332044

iv

This graduate thesis is dedicated to My beloved mother My beloved father My beloved brothers & sisters

STATEⅣ賃

ENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to those who have given their contribution for the completion of this thesis.

My deepest gratitude is dedicated to Jesus Christ who has granted me his blessing for keeping me strong during the process of completing my thesis.

I would like to thank English Language Studies Graduate Program for giving me a big opportunity to receive the scholarship so that I could learn and get experiences during my study. In particular, I thank Dr. J. Bismoko, who has given her sincere guidance for shaping my ideas, reading my thesis, and checking my grammar.

My deepest gratitude is addressed to Paulus Widiatmoko, S.Pd., M.A., Mega Wulandari, S.Pd., M.Hum., and Luluk Iswati, S.Pd.,M.Hum., who were willing to give comments and sugestions on my designed learning model. I also thank my academic advisor and reviewer, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. and Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., for giving me advice and support during my study. I would also like to appreciate all of the English Language Studies Graduate Program lecturers, secretariat staff, especially Mbak Marni and Pakde Mul, and all of the librarians.

It was my pleasure to have a good cooperation with the big family of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University and Introduction to College English (ICE) Duta Wacana Christian University.

My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Petrus Triyono and Fransisca Suparmi, for their great love. I also thank my lovely brothers, Rm. Tri Margono, Pr. and Mas Budi, my lovely sisters, Evi and Sr. Yeni, CB., for their continued encouragement and prayer.

I would like to mention the Mangun family and the Parto family, especially my cousin, Mbak Septi, for helping me many times and many ways. I really enjoyed my time with them.

My deep appreciation also goes to all ELS students academic year 2014/2015, Class B, especially Vita, Endah, Tita, Dangin, Ruly, Indra, and Adit. I thank my

viii

beloved friends in 9C, especially Bu Byti, Fitri, Ita, Lina, Intan, Asri, Fani, Yani, Mbing, Dera, Arin and Mega for their kindness, friendship, and support.

It will take a lot of pages to mention everyone who has given his/her contribution to my thesis. For those who have not been mentioned, I do acknowledge my sincere thanks. God bless you all.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiv

ABSTRACT ... xv

ABSTRAK ... xvii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... ... 1

A.Research Background ... 1

B.Problem Identification ... 6

C.Problem Limitation ... 8

D.Research Questions ... 9

E. Product Specification ... 9

F. Research Objectives ... 10

G.Research Benefits ... 10

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 12

A.Theoretical Review ... 12

1. College General English ... 12

a. English For International Communication ... 15

b. English Learning Program In Indonesia ... 18

c. General English ... 19

d. English Proficiency ... 21

2. Text-Based Learning ... 24

a. Needs Analysis ... 26

b. Course Design ... 26

c. Planning Units of Works ... 32

3. The Four Strands ... 35

a. Learning Through Listening and Reading ... 35

b. Learning Through Speaking and Writing ... 36

c. Language-Focused Learning ... 36

d. Becoming Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing ... 37

x

4. Instructional Design ... 38

a. ADDIE Model ... 38

b. Dick and Carey Model ... 41

c. Kathleen Graves Model ... 43

5. Product Acceptability ... 48

a. Validity of the Product ... 49

b. Reliability of the Product ... 50

c. Practicality of the Product ... 51

B.Characteristics of Prospective Users ... 52

C.Related Research Reports ... 53

D.Theoretical Framework ... 55

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ... 61

A.Research Goal and Method ... 62

1. Analysis ... 63

2. Design ... 61

3. Development ... 64

4. Implementation ... 65

5. Evaluation ... 65

B.Research Data ... 66

C.Data Gathering Instruments ... 68

1. Interview ... 68

2. Questionnaire ... 69

D.Data Analysis and Interpretation ... 75

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS ... 78

A.Process of Designing the Model ... 78

1. Analysis ... 78

2. Design ... 92

3. Development ... 98

a. Developing the Tentative Product ... 98

b. Preliminary Field Testing ... 101

c. Main Product Revision ... 105

4. Implementation ... 106

5. Evaluation ... 107

B.Presentation of the Model ... 112

1. Stage 1: What Do You Know? ... 112

2. Stage 2: Let’s Find Out ... 113

3. Stage 3: Let’s Practice ... 115

4. Stage 4: Express Yourself ... 116

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS ... 118

A.Conclusions ... 118

xi

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 123 APPENDICES ... 127

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Common Reference Levels ... 22

Table 2.2. The Characteristics of Text-Based Syllabus ... 27

Table 2.3. The Elements of Language ... 28

Table 2.4. The Families of Text-Types ... 29

Table 2.5. Checklist for Developing Units ... 33

Table 2.6. Information Gathered When Assessing Needs ... 46

Table 2.7. Considerations for Material Development ... 47

Table 3.1. The Blueprint for Students’ Needs Analysis ... 70

Table 3.2. Expert Validation Questionnaire Blueprint ... 71

Table 3.3. User Validation Questionnaire Blueprint ... 73

Table 3.4. Degree of Agreement ... 75

Table 3.5. The Score Interpretation ... 76

Table 3.6. The Item Improvement ... 77

Table 4.1. Students’ Responses of Item 1-10 ... 84

Table 4.2. Students’ responses of item 11-16 ... 85

Table 4.3. Students’ Responses of Item 17-29 ... 88

Table 4.4. Students’ Responses of Items 30-36 ... 89

Table 4.5. Formulation of the Learning Objectives ... 94

Table 4.6. List of Sequenced Learning Objectives and Topics ... 96

Table 4.7. Description of Preliminary Field Testing Respondents ... 101

Table 4.8. Results of Expert Validation ... 102

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. The Changing Nature of the Collaboration Between Teacher

And Student in Response To Learner Progress ... 30

Figure 2.2. Stages of the Teaching and Learning Cycle ... 31

Figure 2.3. ADDIE Instructional Model ... 41

Figure 2.4. Dick and Carey Model ... 42

Figure 2.5. A Framework of Course Development Processes ... 44

Figure 2.6. The Conceptual Model ... 57

Figure 2.7. The Unit Contents of the Iconic Model ... 60

Figure 3.1. The Flowchart of the Combination of R&D Cycle and ADDIE Model ... 66

Figure 4.1. What do you know? ... 113

Figure 4.2. Let’s find out ... 114

Figure 4.3. Let’s practice ... 115

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Interview Guideline ... 128

Appendix 2 Needs Analysis Questionnaire ... 129

Appendix 3 Sample of Syllabus ... 132

Appendix 4 Needs Analysis Questionnaire Results ... 148

Appendix 5 Interview Results ... 153

Appendix 6 Syllabus ... 159

Appendix 7 Product ... 168

Appendix 8 Transcript ... 216

Appendix 9 Facebook Group ... 217

Appendix 10 Expert Validation Questionnaire ... 218

Appendix 11 User Validation Questionnaire ... 221

Appendix 12 The Result of Expert Validation ... 225

Appendix 13 The Result of User Validation ... 228

xv ABSTRACT

Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

The fact that an English learning program is provided to equip college students with English skills poses several problems since every university, even every study program, likely has its own system. One of them is mainly because of the subjective judgements of the study program chairperson or English instructor. The effect is the different amount of the time allocation in every major. Some allocate only 2 credits, others 8 credits, or even more, depending on the regular or intensive courses, and considering the learning components, such as the learning strategy, material, media, and assessment. This may cause difficulties in a probable language learning program. Among these problems, one of the solutions is to provide an acceptable material that is arranged based on the language that needs to be acquired. The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three levels: general English, general academic English, and specific academic English.

In order to solve the problem of supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning model for the first level, i.e. college general English. The general English course is needed to provide the students with pre-academic English before they have English for academic and specific purposes. Thus, the problem discussed in this study is what is the acceptable product of the text-based college general English?

In order to answer the research question, the researcher employed ADDIE model for the instructional design. The researcher also adopted Borg’s and Gall’s R&D model as the research methodology. Interviews and questionnaires were conducted to determine the asumed needs and get validation from experts and users. The data were in the forms of quantitative and qualitative data. Due to the time constraints, the designed learning model was only verified with the students and instructor, and not disseminated to the public. The research was done in Duta Wacana Christian University and Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta. Both were chosen randomly.

The final result was a course book named College Just Ahead. The conceptual model was based on the some underlying theories. The provided materials were designed to achieve epistemic level, in which students are able to transform knowledge in certain language. Thus, reading, listening, writing, and

speaking were integrated and provided in the learning materials. Nation’s four strands supported how those skills could improve students’ fluency. Then, Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) and text-based learning were used as the proficiency level achievement and approach in the instructional design as well. The conceptual model was presented in the iconic model, i.e. a book. The book consists of five units, which has two or three sub-units in every unit. The sub-unit consists of four parts, namely What did you know?, Let’s find out, Let’s practice, and Express yourself. What did you know? contains the introduction to the text and explore what students already know. Let’s find out provides the examples of the text and learns the used language expressions. Let’s practice is activity in which the

xvi

students construct a text. Finally, in Express yourself, students produce the text individually. The result showed that the product was acceptable by the mean score above 4.00 out of 5. Therefore, when it is completed, the course is more transferable. The students and instructors more focus on the process of acquiring an English competence, so that the product is more valid and reliable.

xvii

ABSTRAK

Indriyani, Christina Eli. 2016. A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Fakta bahwa program pembelajaran bahasa Inggris diselenggarakan untuk membekali mahasiswa dengan kemampuan bahasa Inggris menimbulkan beberapa masalah karena universitas, bahkan setiap program studi, memungkinkan untuk memiliki sistem tersendiri. Salah satu penyebabnya juga dikarenakan keputusan subyektif dari ketua program atau dosen pengampu, sehingga membuat alokasi waktu yang diberikan berbeda. Beberapa program studi menyediakan 2 SKS sedangkan yang lain lebih dari 2 SKS, tergantung apakah program dilaksanakan secara intensif atau reguler dan mempertimbangkan komponen lain seperti fasilitas, media, strategi, dan penilaian pembelajaran. Diantara permasalahan tersebut, salah satu solusi yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan menyediakan sebuah pembelajaran yang bisa diterima dari segi waktu dan materi. Asumsi dasar dari materi yang dapat disediadakan dapat digolongkan menjadi 3 tingkatan, antara lain general English, general academic English, dan specific academic English.

Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti memutuskan untuk membuat model pembelajaran pada tinkat yang pertama, yaitu college general English. Bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa dibutuhkan untuk membekali mahasiswa sebelum mereka belajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan yang lebih khusus. Maka dari itu, permasalahan pokok dalam penelitian ini adalah seperti apakah produk pembelajaran bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa yang dapat diterima?

Peneliti menggunakan ADDIE model dalam menjawab permasahan tersebut. Sedangkan dalam metodologi, peneliti mengadopsi teori Borg dan Gall tentang Research dan Development. Wawancara dan kuesioner dilakukan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan dan memperoleh evaluasi dari para ahli dan calon pengguna model pembelajaran. Peneliti hanya melakukan try-out kepada satu kelas dan produk tidak diseminasikan karena keterbatasan waktu. Penelitian dilakukan di Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana dan Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.

Produk yang dihasilkan berupa sebuah buku berjudul College Just Ahead. Model konseptual dari buku tersebut berdasarkan beberapa teori. Materi yang tersedia dirancang untuk mencapai tingkat epistemic dimana mahasiswa mampu mentransformasi pengetahuan dalam bahasa tertentu. Maka dari itu, keahlian membaca, mendengarkan, menulis, dan berbicara dikombinasikan dalam materi pembelajaran. The four strands mendukung mahasiswa untuk meningkatkan keempat kemampuan tersebut. Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) dan pembelajaran berbasis teks juga digunakan untuk menentukan tingkat kecakapan dan pendekatan dalam materi yang dirancang. Kemudian, model konseptual dituangkan dalam bentuk buku pembelajaran. Buku tersebut terdiri dari 5 unit dan setiap unit terdiri dari 2 atau 3 sub-unit. Setiap sub-unit terdapat 4 bagian. Bagian I, What did you know?, mengeksplor apa yang sudah mahasiswa pelajari dan pengenalan terhadap topik yang akan dipelajari. Bagian II, Let’s find out, berisi teks lisan maupun tertulis. Bagian III, Let’s practice, berisi latihan untuk mahasiswa. Bagian terakhir, Express yourself, berisi kegiatan mahasiswa membuat

xviii

teks secara individu. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa produk yang dirancang dapat diterima dengan skor rata-rata di atas 4.00 dari skor maksimal 5. Maka dari itu, diharapakan buku pembelajaran tersebut dapat menjadi salah satu bahan pendukung pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang membuat program lebih mudah untuk ditransfer. Mahasiswa dan dosen juga lebih fokus pada proses dalam mencapai kompetensi yang diharapkan dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris. Kata kunci: pembelajaran berdasarkan teks, bahasa Inggris umum untuk mahasiswa

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter will provide the general explanations about the project justification, including validity and feasibility of this research. The introductory chapter contains several subheadings, those are Research Background, Problem Identification, Problem Limitation, Research Questions, Product Specification, Research Objectives, and Research Benefits. The research background gives the reasons why this research is necessary. Problem formulation, problem limitation, and research questions explain the technical limitation of the study and specify the questions that need to be answered. Product specification figures out the product that will be designed. Research benefits state the goal and advantages that will be achieved.

A.Research Background

The expectation and demand of college students to have a good ability in English make the universities ponder to provide English learning program. The demands appears when English is considered important to support college students for their study and applying for a job later. According to the information obtained in the preliminary interview, it was also found that many graduates had a low ability in the English field so that they were less competitive in workplaces. Under this condition, the university decided to hold an English learning program for all majors, consisting of general and specific purposes. Nevertheless, the fact that English learning program is provided to equip college students with English skill poses

another problem since every university, even every major, likely has a different system.

The different system was triggered whether the provided program has equality and the credits can be transferable among study programs or universities. In fact, the equality cannot be reached because there is no standard from the government that manages how the system works or whether it constitutes a compulsory subject. Consequently, autonomous system is applied. Furthermore, the transferable course is low because the policies are adjusted to the needs of every major and occasionally determined by the lecturers. The effects are the credits offered in every major might be different and the course might not be acknowledged. Therefore, such a program also triggers other problems which are related to college English learning complexities.

The first problem is related to academic difficulties. Kannan (2009) conducted a study on India college students during their study, especially in learning English as a foreign language. Kannan found that twelve years of school study do not guarantee students’ mastery over English when they enter their college level. Perhaps, while they are in schools, English is not taught properly. For instance, if students do not understand anything in English, they ask for explanation in L1 and the teacher replies in L1 as well. Thus, although a bilingual method or other methods are adopted in language classes, they never meet the course’s goals because the activities reduce the real language learning process. Instead of academic difficulty, India college students learn English from the examination point of view only. This perspective prevails students that they are not able to achieve English mastery. In fact, learning English requires constant practice and patience.

Another study related to English language learning was conducted by Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin, and Mei. The problem of this research was college students in Laos who have low English language learning due to several factors.

First, the English teachers are not well-trained; for instance, teachers uses Lao language when teaching so that they cannot perform well to attract the students’ interest. Second, students’ lack of English foundation background. Third, students’ lack of confidence to use English because they are afraid of making mistakes. Fourth, the curriculum is inappropriate for helping students to improve their English proficiency. Last but not least, English language is difficult to learn due to students are not well-motivated, encouraged and gained learning strategy. (Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin, Mei, 2013, p.180)

In learning English as a foreign language, college students are sometimes considered that they have had basic knowledge, so that universities only need to provide an English learning program based on students’ majors. However, the fact is far from what is expected. There are still many things to be improved in language learning program. For non-English speaking countries, such as India, Laos, and even Indonesia, in which English is one of the subjects at the university level, they still face difficulties in providing English learning programs, including how to determine the proficiency standard, curriculum, learning strategy, and developing material.

Several studies in Indonesia have been conducted related to college English problems focusing on the learning strategy, developing program, and particular skills. Hendriani (2013) conducted Research and Development in which a model of learning strategy of speaking English was developed based on the learning strategies applied by proficient English speakers among the language learners. The research is aimed at developing an appropriate model of learning strategy to improve students’ speaking skill and finding out the effectiveness of the developed learning strategy model in improving the students’ speaking skill. Then, a study

conducted by Baskara (2014) provided a learning model for intensive reading at the university level. The designed model adapted e-learning which allows the teachers to adapt materials to students’ needs and to connect with many web-resources so that the teachers may improve their creativity. Another study related to research and development is intended to design model of instructional vocabulary material through reading for college students (Nugraheni, 2014). The material is provided for the English class before the students prepare themselves for the working environment. In the study, reading is also considered as the appropriate aid in the learning process because the students are able to learn new information, especially about their field, through reading.

Among the previous problems, one of the solutions that the researcher encourages to focus is to provide material that is arranged based on the needs analysis. Material constitutes one of the crucial learning components. Richard and Rodgers (2001, p.79) view materials as a way to influence the quality of classroom interaction and language use. Tomlinson (1998, p.2) defines materials as any tools in the form of both audio-video and printed-no printed things to facilitate the language learning, not only restricted to course books. However, many universities perhaps have not had their own learning materials. Such problem occurs because of some condition. First, some universities might adopt the learning materials from books. The teachers can choose some topics what students need and compile them into one module. This is considered more practice. Second, developing materials needs more time and considerations. Since the teachers mostly use their time to do administration things and prepare for teaching, they are lack of time to design the materials. Moreover, materials have to represent the goals of universities in forming

qualified students, even it should be flexible and adjustable to different standardization. The last condition relates to the management. Conducting a program needs good management and adequate budget to support the process, including the qualified facilities and human resources.

The basic assumptions of the materials can be divided into three fields; general English, general academic English, and specific academic English. In order to solve problems and improve the life quality, particularly supporting the English learning process in college, this research aims to produce a learning material model for college general English. The model constitutes an introductory course before students get English for academic purposes. The introductory course is needed to provide basic knowledge in English since English for specific academic purposes will be more complex. Although it is an alternative general English model, learning the general English will provide the bridge between what students have already known or what they have learned in high school and what they will get in college. The college general English model expects students to be able to communicate by using English in the future.

Different from the previous studies, this study is aimed to design a text-based learning model for college general English. If the previous study adapted the learning strategy as the basis to develop the learning model, this study will focus on text-based learning. The text-based learning, or known as the genre-based

learning, is defined as “a framework for language instruction” based on examples

of a particular text or genre (Byram, 2004, p. 234). It means that language always happens as text, whether it is spoken or written, and not as isolated words and sentences. Texts can help conceptualize language as human resources for making

meanings. Text-based learning enables learners to use the target language in ways familiar to them – with texts which are authentic, purposeful, and functional. Furthermore, Tingting (2011, p.7) stated “text-based learning implies that learning target language can be done through reading texts, such as acquiring words’

meaning and their typical language environment from texts”. This idea is also supported by Mickan (2012, p.21) who said that text-based instruction integrates spoken and written language as in natural language use. It is normal for people to combine reading and writing, just as listening and speaking occur together. He adds

that “working with texts integrates the skills to take advantage of multisensory text experiences to enhance memorizing language.” Since the study utilizes text-based learning, it does not mean that reading becomes the main skill to be improved, but the four skills are integrated. The text can be in form of receptive skills like reading and listening, productive skills like speaking and writing, or its combination. Therefore, when using texts in learning and teaching, a text can be as a linguistic object, a vehicle for information and a stimulus for production.

B.Problem Identification

All the reasons above has built’s up the researcher’s way of thinking to design an English learning material instead of other learning components, such as media, teaching technology, and assessment that have been developed for college English learning. Since this study focuses on English learning material for college students, the researcher puts the English subject per se as a general English. This will differentiate the learning materials from the English subject when it comes with specific purposes.

The English learning material model for college general English has not come to meet its standard because the standard of one university might be different with another. The standard then is considered to the goals of the universities. Hence, most universities adopt standard which is commonly used, i.e. CEFR (Common European Framework References). CEFR describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in which language is set. The framework also defines levels of proficiency which allow learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis.

The universities provide English language program started from the earliest semester, even they conduct it as matriculation program. This introductory program focuses on general English in which the basic knowledge of English will be taught. The materials provided for general English are generally adopted from many books. The teachers might choose the materials and compile them. Thus, it is necessary to provide students with English learning material which can be adjustable especially for novice level students. The learning material model can be alternative to teach general English for college students in any universities or institutions.

Learning material model for college general English may have various types depending on the skills that want to develop. Since general English is still very basic knowledge, the learning process should include all skills like reading, listening, speaking, and writing. The receptive skills should be balanced with the productive skills. Most general English learning materials emphasize one or two skills so that the researcher tried to design learning material with integrated skills. Text-based

learning model for college general English is chosen because it is pondered to answer the students’ needs which deal with the four skills, and any kinds of texts, both scientific and non-scientific. Therefore, regarding the demands of students’ competence and the importance of English skills to support students’ academic or future job, the students need to be provisioned with ability in spoken and written English.

C.Problem Limitation

In this study, the researcher determines some limitations in order to make constraints. First, the researcher focuses on research and development of designing a learning material model for college general English. Thus, there is no

experimental study conducted to measure students’ English competence after they

experience using the learning materials. It focuses on the development and validation of the learning material model.

Second, the developed learning material model is particularly for the novice level of university students. The researcher chooses the general English, as the matriculation program as well, because the materials are for the introductory course program for undergraduate students before they have English for Specific Purposes in every faculty. Students need to prepare it so that they get more inputs for better result. Therefore, the designed learning material constitutes an alternative to present an efficient product of English learning material for college students.

Third, the limitation is related to the text-based learning as the main approach of the materials. Since students deal with short-functional texts, journal, or other reports, they need to be introduced to any kinds of texts. Hence, text-based learning is chosen to support students in learning English through the texts. The text itself is

likely provided in written and spoken forms. The four skills like speaking, listening, reading, and writing, will be integrated.

D.Research Questions

In this research, the focus is on producing the iconic model based on the conceptual model. The conceptual model, which is the underlying theories, constitutes part of constructing the iconic model. The researcher proposes one question to be answered, and thus being the guideline to process the research and the writing. The question is what is the acceptable product of the text-based learning model for college general English?

E.Product Specifications

The name of the product is A Text-Based Learning Model for College General English. The product is aimed to present an efficient learning material of English for undergraduate students, especially in the first semester. Hence, the designed product is a learning material model for college general English. The text-based learning model will be presented as a book for the students. The book consists of several units which are alloted for fifteen meetings. Each unit has sub-units that contains four parts which provide activities and exercises for students to practice. The four parts, as the model, are related to the teaching and learning cycle by Feez and Joyce (2002) in order to gradually gain independent control toward the English skills, which are reading, listening, speaking, and writing. In addition, the syllabus also included in this model to provide the detailed activities in sequence.

F. Research Objectives

There are two main objectives that will be achieved in this study. The first objective is to discover an acceptable model of the text-based learning model for college general English. That will be the final version of the iconic model which facilitates the college students to improve their reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. Thus, the designed product also aims to indirectly boost college students to have efficiency of their English tasks before they have English for specific purposes and after their studies.

The second objective is to provide the conceptual model of text-based learning model for college general English. This also aims to discover the logical that leads the design of the product. The product is designed using text-based learning which employed the teaching and learning cycle (Feez and Joyce, 2002). In developing the model, the researcher combinces the steps in ADDIE model (Braxton, Bronico, and Looms, 2000, and Rodgers, 2002) and R and D model proposed by Borg and Gall (1983).

G.Research Benefits

This research is expected to be beneficial theoretically and practically. For theoretical benefit, the students and further researchers are expected to gain knowledge of the theory underlying this study. This study gives principles of text-based learning for teaching and learning process. This study also provides the theoretical concept in teaching general English that integrates the four skills.

Practically, this research produces iconic model which can be used for

students to develop students’ English skills. The practical benefit will also be independent student who can practice communicating in English. Then, this study

also aims to benefit for the university, lecturers, and students. For the university, the product is expected to provide an English learning program that is more transferable in order to facilitate students in learning the language and to improve

students’ output during and after studies. For the lecturers, the product can be used to provide recommendation in teaching development and improve the learning efficiency. For college students, learning general English through the developed

design materials is expected to contribute to the development of students’ self -ability. Both lecturers and students could more focus on the process of acquiring the English competences.

12 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses the theories supporting the study and answering the research questions in order to discover the conceptual model. It consists of four parts; Theoretical Review, Characteristics of Prospective Users, Related Research Reports, and Theoretical Framework. Theoretical review includes the relevant theories which are beneficial for analysis. Characteristics of prospective users figure out the logical answer to the general characterisitcs of population. Related research reports include any research that have beed conducted and its results. Theoretical framework describes the theoretical which will be employed in this study.

A.Theoretical Review

In this section, the the researcher tried to clarify the related concepts that will be used to design and develop the learning model. It contains the theory of college general English, English learning program in Indonesia, text-based learning, and instructional design.

1. College General English

College general English is designed to improve students’ ability to communicate in English in daily life, social, or work situation. Designing English language progam should consider some fundamental theories, such as the competence, language model, context, text, and literacy level that imply the fundamental practice. Regarding the literacy level, there are several stages in every school level, those are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic

(Wales, 1987, as cited in Competence Standard of Curriculum 2004 by National Education Department, 2003). After students graduate from high school, they are expected to reach informational level because they are also prepared to enter the university level. Therefore, English for college students has to achieve epistemic level, in which students are able to transform knowledge in certain language.

According to Yumei and Bang (2007), as cited by Zhu and Liao (2008, p.92),

teaching and learning is an “instructional paradigm” which the teacher transfers the

information in 45-or-50-minute lectures and the student receives it. In teaching and learning process, this linear process of information transfer and reception happens continously by using several teaching models. Yumei and Bang (2007), as cited by Zhu and Liao (2008), explain several teaching models frequently applied for general English teaching. One of them is PPP model. PPP stands for “presentati on-practice-production”. Presentation means introducing new material or grammatical structures through meaningful context. Then, at the Practice stage, various tasks are given to the students in order to reinforce what has been learnt. The last stage is Production. Students are given practice tasks less controlled by the teacher to link what is newly learnt with what has been learnt before.

In PPP model, the skills are worked upon in sequence from the receptive skills (reading and listening) to the productive skills (writing and speaking). Ksenia (2011) suggested that the PPP can minimize the mistake on the stage during the learning process. In presentation, the teacher explains about material what they want to deliver to the students. The second is practice, in which the students try about what they understand about the material from the teacher. The students start taking bigger control over the learning, however practice in this case is still guided

by the teacher. Hints are always given to the students so they can find out and practice by themselves. Students are able to discuss what they learn with peer group. The last is production. Production is chance to students express their own idea. Students make a text based on topic that giving by the teacher, which aims to measure how far the students understand about the material. Regarding the proceses, it can be cocluded that student-centered approach is implemented in PPP. The teachers or instructors provide students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another. They also coach the students in the skills that need to learn.

According to Vystavelova (2009), there is an advantage of PPP model that leads to the student-centered approach. Using PPP, the lesson is easy to prepare because the material used for the lesson are ordered from the simplest to the most difficult. Types of activities are arranged from the most controlled to the feast controlled. Thus, this approach is relatively easy for beginner students or novice level students. In addition, Carless (2009) said that “low achieving students probably learn better through PPP”. The PPP has been referred to a teaching method; however, it can be utilized as a useful technique with a variety of teaching methodologies, such as the most common type communicative approach and text-based approach. In both approaches, students takes dominant role in the learning process. The scaffold given to the students is gradually decreased in order to be independent.

The learning model should be adjusted to the class’ circumstances. The systematic procedures can be combined in order to vary the activities and give stimulus to the learners. The first stage, Presentation, aims to buid knowledge or

provide general overview. Learners are also engaged because the class will run smoothly if students have interests. Then, practice stage is also one way to activate learners. This step elaborates learners’ skill and observe how interaction happens in the class. After learners construct their text, performance time should be provided even in bigger portion if necessary. Assessment can be used to evaluate the process

and learners’ progress. Thus, the theory of learning model supports the researcher to design the learning materials.

Other theories that support the explanation about college general English will be elaborated into three parts. First, English for international communication discusses the importance and needs of English for international communication. Second, English for general purposes is to find out the general English for college students. The last is English proficiency, which aims to know the English proficiency level at the university level. The detailed explanation is as follows. a. English for International Communication

In order to understand the idea of English for international communication, it is important to figure out English speakers in the world and define what is meant

by ‘world English’. The use of English in the world is not uniform. According to

Kachru (1985), as cited by Zacharias (2003, p.15), the speakers of English can be classified into three categories. Each category is represented through the concentric circles.

The inner circle includes countries such as the UK, the USA and Australia where English is the primary and often the only language for the majority of the population. The outer circle refers to countries such as Singapore, India and Nigeria, where

English has become part of chief institutions, and plays the role of ‘second’ or ‘additional’ language, alongside local languages. The expanding circle consists of

countries where English is only a foreign language. (Kachru, 1985, cited by Zacharias, 2003, p.15)

Based on those categories, Indonesia belongs to the expanding circle, in which English is only a foreign language. English as a world language is acknowledged important to be learnt. The English speakers have reached more than seven hundred million people. Thus, English is widely accepted as a global language, or in another

term ‘world English’. Zacharias (2003, p.20) stated that ‘English is used both in a

global sense for international communication between countries and in local sense as a language of wider communication within multilingual societies’. English function is to enable speakers share their ideas and cultures. English can also be connected to the cultures where the language is used.

In this study, the researcher began with the needs analysis. According to Richards et al (1992), needs analysis is

the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities...[it] makes use of both subjective and objective information. (cited by Jordan, 1997, p.20)

Needs analysis aims to find out the necessities, demands, wants, and lacks of the learners. It can be conducted through interview, observation, library research, and so on. Other approaches also have become parts of needs analysis; those are target- situation analysis, present-situation analysis, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, and constraints (Jordan, 1997, p.22). The analysis forms the real or assumed needs that are actually appropriate for the learners. Furthermore, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2009, p.7) state that to begin a program should start from the end. What goal and how success look like should be determined and then gradually looked forward. The identification of the targeted behaviors that program graduates must

apply back at learners’ life in order to bring the identified outcomes. In this study, needs analysis will be utilized as the foundation to determine the concept of the

designed learning model and to dig out the importance of English for college students.

Regarding the needs for college students in learning English, the researcher comes up with English for international communication as part of students’ English mastery. Zacharias (2003, p.1) stated that “the development of English as an international language is observable throughout the world, from its increasing status in educational curricula to its role as the language of international business, tourism, news broadcasting, etc”. English for international communication may be associated with the role of a language that can be used in the entire world. The language also touches many fields that prevail human life, especially to get along, study, and work. English also influences many different cultures in a large number of countries. Thus, English can be called the central language for communication with the native and non-native speakers in the world-wide (Susanna, 2007).

The role of English for international communication can also be seen in education section. All university students need English for their studies; for instance, searching information and obtaining knowledge. English is often used as the medium of instruction in higher education. Therefore, English language becomes one of educational tool requirements in many universities throughout the world (Khader & Mohammad, 2010) and the international language that spreads rapidly. In the specific case of Indonesia, the growing importance of English has been recognized by the government and the implication can be seen in the increasing number of schools - from kindergarten to university level – in which the medium of instruction is English (Dardjowidjojo 2002:48-49, as cited by Zacharias, 2003, p.1).

b. English Learning Program in Indonesia

English has been learned by Indonesian students from primary school up to university level as a foreign language. At the university level, the English language learners are considered at advanced level since they have learned English for at least six years, and even more (Hendriani, 2013). In other words, the learners should have the ability to communicate in English actively. They are expected to be able to participate, initiate, sustain, and bring to closure a wide variety of communicative tasks, including those that require an increased ability with diverse language strategies, satisfying the requirements of schools and work situations, and narrating and describing connected discourse with paragraph-length (Richards, 2001). However, the expectation is not easy to be achieved. The English learning programs at the university level still need to be improved.

In order to provide adequate English learning programs, many universities have language training center which helps students to learn general English or English for specific purposes. The program aims to enable students to improve and enhance their language skills so that students are professionally equipped with communication tools for either study or work. The English learning program constitutes a two to eight-credit program, which is offered regularly or intensively. Regular program is held during the semester whereas the intensive program takes shorter – around two months. There are fourteen to twenty four meetings including the tests and it takes a hundred minutes for every meeting. Those are the big picture of the English learning program in Indonesia. However, the policies of one university and another might not be uniform.

c. General English

General English is one of the keywords in this study. It refers to the use of English language in general or not in certain field. According to Far (2008, p.3), general English refers to contexts such as the school where needs cannot readily be specified. It is more usefully considered as providing a broad foundation rather than a detailed and selective specification of goals like ESP. According to Abbot (1981), as cited by Langham (2003, p.63), general English is also called TENOR, teaching English for no obvious reason. TENOR learners are generally classified as students whose motivation levels are low, and who have few specific needs. General English actually aims to help learners function effectively in their specific field of study. Dudley-Evans & St John (2000), as cited by Zohrabi (2010, p.168), explain that general English assists learners to fulfill their academic requirements in higher education. Learners are equipped with an efficient problem solving and solution-oriented way by attending to their specific needs. General English also tries to equip learners with necessary communicative skills and strategies to perform effectively at university and achieve their objectives.

In countries where English is not the first language of the students, general English classes are often attended and needed by almost all the students studying in any institution. These students are from different academic disciplines. However, the General English class tends to be based on the needs of individual academic departments and their students. Thus, the general English that is provided can be specified into pre-academic English in which the learning materials support the students to prepare what they are going to face in higher level education, in this case, before students get academic English.

Based on the learners and purpose of learning, in general English classes, the learners are vary from teenagers to adults and learning English language is the subject of the classes (Far, 2008, p.6). The learners who learn pre-academic English have had basic knowledge and at least have been familiar with English language. They learn English to be able to communicate in daily conversation and perhaps for professional skills. English, here, is perceived as a subject whose contexts and components, such as the vocabulary, grammar, expressions, and pronunciation, have to be learned. In this study, general English, which is for pre-academic English, is not limited to a particular discipline. It attempts to teach language system (vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation), study skills, and language skills and prepare the learners to tackle their university courses and communicate appropriately in their field. Furthermore, the instructional goals of general English are identified (Far, 2008, p.6). As a general rule, the four skills are equally provided. The skills must be integrated because the learners have to be provisioned with reading, listening, speaking, and writing, although it is still on the surface. In a typical class, there is concentration on teaching grammar and language structures. Grammar is mostly in isolation or taught implicitly. Thus, the point is that students need more general English knowledge in order to develop appropriate ways of improving their grammar, sentence composition, reading strategies, vocabulary and so on.

The problems and complexities of pre-academic English instruction in English-speaking contexts have been given little attention in research, especially related to English for Academic Purposes (Liyanage & Birch, 2001). Liyanage &

Birch (2001) assumed that “the issue needs to be addressed since most EAP courses are little more than study-skills ESL courses which do not address the particular English language needs of students from specific disciplines”. In such a course, students will learn both the language of academic discipline and the study skills required during their academic course. Therefore, in this study, the researcher decided to develop General English course, specifically for pre-academic English, which according to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) refers to “any English teaching that relates to a study purpose” (p. 34).

General English, therefore, is considered as a broad foundation in learning English in which the components like vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and the four skills have to be learned. The four skills are combined to make the learning process more effective, meanwhile the other components are learned through the integrated skills. General English is aimed for pre-academic English in which the students prepare themselves to have English course related to their diciplines and to study abroad. In other words, the desined model will tend to be used for study orientation that introduces the students to college life.

d. English Proficiency

English language proficiency is used in most contexts as a benchmark to determine the input and assess the output of the learning process (Nallaya, 2012), and in what level learners are able to communicate using the language. This can be one of the reasons why English course is presented in the non-English department curriculum to help the learners in mastering their subject of the study. Nallaya (2012) also stated that although there is no standardized level of English language proficiency among universities in Indonesia, English language

proficiency has become one of the requirements before the learners finishing their study or enrolling to the next level of education. Thus, English language proficiency is considered crucial in the Indonesian academic context.

Since Indonesia has not had official framework for language learning, many universities or institutions refer to the Common European Framework References (CEFR).

CEFR provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc across Europe. It describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in

which language is set. The Framework also defines levels of proficiency which allow

learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis.

(Language Policy Unit, 2001, p.1)

In its development, CEFR is used not only in European but also many countries in Asia. Actually, CEFR is not single best method or proficiency level because it requires reasons and evidences to claim. However, in this study, CEFR is considered simple and appropriate to describe the level in which learners are

proficient, being assisted based on the learners’ ability in listening, speaking,

reading, and writing. The common reference points are presented in different categories; those are basic, independent, and proficient. The following table shows the orientation points.

Table 2.1. Common Reference Levels (adapted from Language Policy Unit, 2001, p.24)

Proficient user

C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can

express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.

C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise

implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously

without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language

Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.

Independent user

B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of

specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that

makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.

B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

Basic user

A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.

A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

The descriptors of the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in each level can be derived into ‘can do’ statements that help to formulate the learning objectives. Then, the tasks, activities, and assessment can also be determined. All components need to be in line with the proficiency level learners should achieve. In order to figure out the proficiency level of college students, the score should be associated with other standardized tests. Based on the preliminary interview, the researcher found that college students should reach the score at least 440 of TOEFL. In line with that score, the proficiency level of college students is independent user (B1).

2. Text-Based Learning (TBL)

Text-based learning (TBL) is the approach that will be involved in this study. Therefore, it is important to know about text-based learning in depth. Text-based learning is also commonly known as genre-based learning. This study will use the

term ‘text-based’ instead of ‘genre-based’. Kay and Dudley-Evans (1998, p.309) explained that all genres control a set of communicative purposes within certain social situations and that each genre has its own structural quality according to those communicative purposes. The communicative purposes and the structural features should be identified when genres or any kind of texts are used in classes. In improving students’ English competences, this study will not only emphasize particular skill but try to make it integrated.

Mickan (2012) proposed that “Text-based learning integrates spoken and written language as in natural language use”. When people use language, it is normal for them to combine reading and writing, just as listening and speaking occur together. Other combinations are also still possible to occur. For instance, when people write a text, they also read and review what they have read. Another example is when people listen to someone’s talk, they probably take note. Therefore, language programs should not teach skills separately. Mickan (2012) added that working with texts integrates the skills to take advantage of multisensory text experiences to enhance memorizing language. The learners will be able to obtain more exposure and support the language production as well.

Compared with other learning approaches, text-based learning is growing in influence. It can be combined with other approaches or stood itself. Since the focus of text-based learning is on spoken and written genres, authentic examples as

models are commonly used. The social function of the text is identified to figure out what the text is actually for and in what situation the text is used. The grammar of the texts is analyzed as functional for realization of the social purposes of texts. In some applications, the analysis of the linguistic elements comprising texts dominates with a consequent neglect of the social purposes of texts.

Furthermore, the researcher also reviewed some advantages and disadvantages of applying text-based learning. First, on the positive side, students generally appreciate the models or examples of the texts showing specifically what they have to do linguistically. Regarding this situation, the instructors need to provide the formal and functional properties of a language together in order to

facilitate students’ recognition of how and why linguistic conventions are employed

for particular rhetorical effects. Furthermore, text-based learning encourages learners to participate in the world around them, to comprehend any skills as a tool that they can utilize to promote idea. On the other hand, Byram (2004) said that

“the disadvantages of text-based learning are it underestimates the skills required

to produce content, and the other concern is that it neglects learners’ self -sufficiency”. If the teachers spend class time explaining how language is used for a range of purposes, learners are likely to be passive. This situation also limits the

learners’ creative thoughts about content in which the text is produced. Therefore,

although, at its worst, text-based learning interferes the learners’ creativity, at its best, text-based learning helps learners to identify and interpret the texts.

In order to have deeper understanding of the approach, the researcher divides the underlying theory of text-based learning into three parts, those are needs analysis, course design, and planning units of work. The explanation is as follows.

a. Needs Analysis

Needs analysis is utilized to collect information from the learners at the beginning of the course. According to Feez and Joyce (2002, p.39), needs analysis

aims to express students’ personal language learning goals, priorities, and

aspiration; to collect background information about learners; to identify obstacles and consider the strategy to deal with; and to diagnose the language learning needs of the learners. Needs analysis is only the initial step of designing a course material so that how to conduct should be effective and effcient. Effective means that it can be conducted through interview, survey, group discussion, questionnaire, or student journal, which covers almost all information that the researcher needs. Meanwhile, efficient means that it is the needs analysis has clear objectives including systematic questions or statements which underlying theory.

In order to obtain the detailed needs of the learners, the information gathered through diagnosis are used to identify the contexts in which the learners need to use the language, the types and nature of the texts which need to be learned, student strengths and weaknesses in oracy and literacy, student strengths and weaknesses in specific skills and strategies. Those will become the considerations to step in next stages.

b. Course Design

According to Feez and Joyce (2002, p.4), text-based learning is concerned with what learners do with language, that is what they do with the whole texts in context. The text per se is defined as any strectch of language which is held together cohesively through meaning. The size or form of any stretch of language does not indicate that it belongs to a text. However, text has to do with the meaning of any

stretch of language. Text are also fixed in social practices so the learning program

focuses on people’s purposes for language use (Mickan, 2013, p.22). The social

purpose of texts are emphasized in the former. Therefore, the essence is to determine what is going on in a context and how language is necessary to what is taking place.

In order to design the text-based learning model, there are some components that need to be considered. The components consist of the syllabus type, view of language and language learning, content, and methodology. The characteristics of each component are presented as follows.

Table 2.2. The Characteristics of Text-Based Syllabus (adapted from Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.3)

Syllabus type Mixed syllabus: all the elements of various other syllabus types can constitute a repertoire from which a text-based syllabus can be designed. View of language Language occurs as a whole texts which are embedded in the social

contexts in which they are used. View of language

learning

People learn language through working with whole texts.

Content The content is based on whole texts which are selected in relation to learner needs and the social contexts which learners wish to access. Methodology The methodology which supports text-based syllabus is based on a

model of teaching and learning in which the learner gradually gains increasing control of text-types.

The basic element in a text-based syllabus is text-types. How easy or difficult students find text-types is often related to how relevant they are to their immediate needs. Adult learners are much more likely to succeed with a text-type if it is embedded in a real-life context with which they are familiar. This is because they have a stong motivation for being able to use the text-type and there is more

opportunities for students to practice the text-types meaningfully outside the classroom.

Another component in designing a course is language content. Language content represents dimensions that teacher decides materials for the students to make progress. The language content is presented in the matrix, which consists of genre, register, meaning, grammar, and expression. The matrix is used to identify the key features of a target text-type, to analyze and identify model texts, to analyze and assess students texts and identify learner need, to select syllabus elements, to plan developmental pathways across one or more dimension, and to sequence syllabus elements. It can be seen in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3. The Elements of Language (adapted from Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.73)

Genre  Text-types and their social purpose

 The stages of text-types

Skills and strategies relating to the purposes for which language is used in the culture.

Register Field (what)

 Topics

 Social activities

 Skills and strategies to do with the

representation of reality

Tenor (who)

 The relative status of those involved in text

 The type and frequency of contact between people involved in the text

 Interpersonal skills and strategies to do with roles and relationships

Mode (how)

 Distances in time between the

language of the text and the social activity

 Distance in space and time between the interactants

 Skills and strategies for using the channel of communication Meaning Strings of words

which are related

Conjunctions which contribute to the text cohesion and link clauses

Attitude spread across the text by lexical items which express degrees of emotion, judgement, appreciation, modality, intensity, etc

Speech functions

Exchange structure

Reference chains to keep track of participants across a text

Substitution and ellipsis to streamline language

Information flow using theme patterns to organize

meanings across whole texts Grammar  How clauses in

the text are constructed to make experiential meaning

 How clauses in the text are constructed to make

interpersonal meanings

 How clauses in the text are constructed to make textual meaning

Expression Presentation of skills for effective expression of spoken and written texts

Regarding the genre used in the material design, the researcher should compare the text-types in terms of social purposes, and the structure and language features which achieve that purpose. Certificate in Spoken and Written English categories sets of text types which have similar purpose into some families. It is presented as follows. Table 2.4. The Families of Text-Types (Feez and Joyce, 2002, p.85)

Exchanges  Simple exchanges relating to information and goods and services

 Complex or problematic exchanges

 Casual conversation Forms  Simple formatted texts

 Complex formatted texts Procedures  Instruction

 Procedures

 Protocols Information

texts 

Description

 Explanation

 Reports

 Directives

 Text which combine more than one of these text-types Story texts  Recounts

 Narratives Persuasive

texts 

Opinion texts

 Expositions

 Discussions

The researcher sees that common features can be found between texts, either the spoken or the written. Hence, when students learn one text-type, they are able to review and consolidate much of what they have learned. Then, students can reapply it in the new context. This condition indeed constitutes a scaffolding for students in learning new text-type.

No. Statements Degree of Agreement Total Respondent Total Score Mean

5 4 3 2 1 16. The instructions are

clear and easy to comprehend.

1 1 1 0 0 3 12 4,00

17. The layout is clear and

well designed. 1 1 1 0 0 3 12 4,00

18. The fonts are legible. _{2 1 0 0 0 3 14 4,67}

19. The type of colour and

fonts are appropriate. 2 1 0 0 0 3 14 4,67

20. The audio is clear. _{1 2 0 0 0 3 13 4,33}

Part 2

No. Question Answer

1 What do you think of the learning model? 

The learning model offers elaboration of 4 language skills that can be presented into variations of classroom activities targetted upon choices of goals a teacher would like to obtain. It provides balance language input and output.

 It’s very useful for college students, especially freshmen. Each unit contains lessons related to campus life/stuffs, which are real and contextual.

 The learning model is relevant to the needs of college students (especially those of basic level)

2 Please mention some strengths of the designed learning model!

 The content is relevant with the needs of college learners  The objectives provide clear idea toward how the

materials should be presented and adjusted if necessary  Many real life (authentic) language tasks

 The content is very relevant for the targetted learners  Attractive appearance

 Offers up to date materials

 Provides a lot of authentic materials

 The sections and subsections are well-organized  The content provides current situation

 The layout is managable 3 Please mention some

weaknesses of the designed learning model!

 The audio could be better in terms of sound quality  Language input (oral/listening) could be more varied  Having animated graphic/short videos cound enrich this

material

 It’s not clear for what level of proficiency is this book intended

 Section C should contain more practices, from guided to less guided activities

No. Question Answer

 Some grammatical mistakes are spotted.  The instruction should be improved. 4 What do you suggest to

improve the designed learning model?

 Add relevant videos from legal streaming video providers  Adding more topics related to language functions when

attending a lecture, having discussion, or interacting with other students could be an option

 Text should below the header  Omit all grammatical mistakes  Improve the instructions

228 Appendix 13. The Result of User Validation Part 1

No. Statements Degree of Agreement Total Respondent

Total Score

Mean 5 4 3 2 1

1. I understand the learning goal in every meeting.

7 13 1 0 0 21 90 4,29

2. The materials in the course book are suitable with my needs on learning English.

12 6 3 0 0 21 93 4,43

3. The materials support me to practice

reading.

14 6 1 0 0 21 97 4,62

4. The materials support

me to practice writing. 11 9 1 0 0 21 94 4,48

5. The materials support me to practice

listening.

10 9 2 0 0 21 92 4,38

6. The materials support me to practice

speaking.

12 8 1 0 0 21 95 4,52

7. The topics are

interesting. 9 12 0 0 0 21 93 4,43

8. The materials are

relevant to the topics. 10 9 2 0 0 21 92 4,38

9. The materials are arranged

systematically, from the easiest one to more difficult one.

9 9 2 1 0 21 89 4,24

10. The activities are

various. 11 7 3 0 0 21 92 4,38

11. The activities encourage me to participate.

9 11 1 0 0 21 92 4,38

12. The course book can

be used in any majors. 5 13 2 1 0 21 85 4,05

13. The instructions are clear and easy to comprehend.

7 11 3 0 0 21 88 4,19

14. The layout is clear and

well designed. 6 13 1 1 0 21 87 4,14

15. The fonts are legible. _{10 9 2 0 0 21 92 4,38}

16. The type of colour and

No. Statements Degree of Agreement Total Respondent

Total Score

Mean 5 4 3 2 1

17. The audio is clear. _{5 13 3 0 0 21 86 4,10}

Part 2

No. Question Answer

18. Will you use the learning model? Why?

 Yes, because this book courages me to increase my English learning process.

 Yes,because the topics and materials really support me in learning English. It is appropriate with my needs.

I don’t know because I haven’t used all parts ot the book.

 Yes, because this book helps me to learn English smoothly from the basic one.

 Yes, because the materials are interesting and start from the easiest one to the more difficult one.

 Yes, because the language is appropriate with my ability.  Yes, because the materials are easy to understand.

19. Please describe the things that need

improvements.

 Make the fonts more clear.

230 Appendix 14. Pictures of the Try-Out