A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF ENTAILMENT IN THE DA VINCI CODE MOVIE.

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Attainment of Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Literature

by:

Yesi Rahmawati NIM 13211144021

ENGLISH LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY

And, when you want something, all the universe

conspires in helping you to achieve it.

~ Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist ~

The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.

~ Franklin D. Roosevelt ~

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This thesis is dedicated to

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His guidance and His blessing for my every achievement, including the accomplishment of this thesis. His continuous mercy and grace are always being with me even during the completion process of this thesis. He has given me chance, strength, and courage to experience the bitter sweet of life. Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere deepest gratitude to:

1. my one and only supervisor, Titik Sudartinah, S.S., M.A., for the generous encouragement for me to finish my thesis, and for the corrections to all of the mistakes I have committed during the accomplishment of this thesis, from which I have learnt a lot regarding my thesis;

2. my academic advisor, Ari Nurhayati, M. Hum., who has been consistently inspiring me in my academic career by guiding me from the beginning until the end of my study;

3. all lecturers of English Education Department of Yogyakarta State University, especially the lecturers and the staff of English Literature study program who have transmitted their knowledge during my study;

4. my deceased father whose reminiscence always motivates me to face every obstacle throughout my life;

5. my mother, my little sister, and my relatives who have provided their best support during my college years;

6. my beloved comrades, Bunga, Denis, Ika, and Widya, for always care, support, and accompany me during my joy and sorrow;

7. my peer reviewers, Wulan, Ute, and Yogi for the ideas and helps in correcting my thesis; I owe you big thanks for helping me in completing this thesis; 8. my classmates in K class and Linguistic class for all the beautiful memories

we have spent together in our college years, and particularly for Tri Intan, Ade, and Irsyad who have helped me in my study;

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RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii

PERNYATAAN ... iv

MOTTOS ... v

DEDICATION ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Research Focus ... 4

C. Objectives of the Study ... 6

D. Significance of the Study ... 6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ... 8

A. Literature Review ... 8

1. Semantics ... 8

2. Semantic Relation ... 10

a. Lexical Relation ... 10

b. Phrasal Relation ... 12

c. Sentential Relation ... 12

3. Entailment ... 13

a. Types of Entailment ... 14

b. Orders of Entailment ... 18

c. Approaches to Detect Entailment ... 21

4. The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 23

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C. Data Collection Techniques ... 29

D. Research Instrument ... 30

E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 32

F. Data Trustworthiness ... 32

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 34

A. Findings ... 34

B. Discussion ... 37

1. Types of Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 37

a. One-way Entailment ... 37

b. Two-way/Mutual Entailment ... 43

c. Negative Entailment ... 47

d. Metaphorical Entailment ... 50

2. Orders of Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 54

a. Background Entailment ... 55

1) Background Order in One-way Entailment ... 55

2) Background Order in Two-way/Mutual Entailment ... 58

3) Background Order in Negative Entailment ... 59

4) Background Order in Metaphorical Entailment ... 60

b. Foreground Entailment ... 61

1) Clefting ... 61

a) Foreground Order (Clefting) in One-way Entailment ... 62

b) Foreground Order (Clefting) in Two-way/Mutual Entailment ... 63

c) Foreground Order (Clefting) in Negative Entailment ... 64

2) Stressing ... 64

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3. Approaches to Detect Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 68

a. Contexted Clause ... 68

1) Contexted Clause Applied in One-way Entailment ... 69

2) Contexted Clause Applied in Two-way/Mutual Entailment ... 69

3) Contexted Clause Applied in Negative Entailment ... 70

4) Contexted Clause Applied in Metaphorical Entailment ... 71

b. Context Matching ... 71

1) Context Matching Applied in One-way Entailment ... 72

2) Context Matching Applied in Two-way/Mutual Entailment .. 73

3) Context Matching Applied in Negative Entailment ... 75

4) Context Matching Applied in Metaphorical Entailment ... 75

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 77

A. Conclusions ... 77

B. Suggestions ... 79

REFERENCES ... 81

APPENDICES ... 84

A. Data Sheet of Types and Orders of Entailment, and Approaches to Detect Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 84

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Figure 2. Analytical Construct ... 27

Tables

Table 1. The Sample Data Sheet of Types and Orders of Entailment, and

Approaches to Detect Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie ... 31 Table 2. Findings of Types and Orders of Entailment, and Approaches to

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NIM 13211144021 ABSTRACT

This research is under the scope of semantics. The aims of this study are to identify the types of entailment, to describe the orders of entailment, and to explain the approaches to detect entailment uttered by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie.

This research employed descriptive qualitative method. Therefore, the data of this research were in the form of utterances performed by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie, while the context of the data was monologues or dialogues between the characters. The source of the data was The Da Vinci Code movie and its transcript. The data were collected by selecting sentences containing entailment. The researcher conducted triangulation in order to establish the credibility of the data.

The results revealed from the findings are mentioned as follows. (1) All types of entailment which are one-way entailment, two-way/mutual entailment, negative entailment, and metaphorical entailment are found in The Da Vinci Code movie. From the total 57 data, one-way entailment reaches the highest frequency because it is the simplest model of entailment, and it appears 26 times. Meanwhile, negative entailment, which appears 6 times, becomes the least one to occur. This type of entailment requires at least one negative sentence to formulate entailment, while the characters in the movie rarely perform negative sentences. (2) Each order of entailment is applied in the data sheet; they are background entailment and foreground entailment. Therefore, most of entailments found in the movie are ordered based on the foreground as it is applied 33 times, and is distributed into 28 stressing and 5 clefting. The existence of stressing and clefting supports the foreground order to acquire the highest position. (3) To detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie, the researcher employs contexted clause and context matching approaches. Contexted clause is employed 36 times out of 57 data, while context matching is employed in the rest of the data. The researcher tends to apply contexted clause more frequently rather than context matching since most of the entailments are interconnected in context.

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objective of the study, and significance of the study. The background of the research deals with general information about the research, and the motives of the researcher in conducting the study. Meanwhile, research focus describes what the research is focused on, and also the problems triggering the accomplishment of the research. Thus, to answer the research problem, the objectives of the study are performed. In addition, the significance of the research is presented as the final section of the chapter.

A. Background of the Study

People transfer information through communication. The communication is only possible to be delivered by language as language is the medium of communication. The language of communication is performed in the form of utterances. In the case of early ages children, they produce utterances in a simpler form. They are not concerned with the structure of their words as they are still lack of knowledge about sentence structure. They, however, sometimes mess with some utterances since the utterances are too simple. This action of messing with utterances confuses people in catching the actual meaning. That is why transferring meaning for early ages children is more important rather than arranging the words into a correct structural sentence.

As the children grow, their ability to produce utterances is also developed as well. They begin to consider the phoneme, grammar, and meaning as important

elements in their utterances. The three elements should be correlated with one another in order to produce a meaningful and understandable sentence. Phoneme is individual sounds of words. Then, the words are systematically arranged according to the grammatical rules to form a correct sentence. Each word in a sentence has meanings which play different roles, and they are under the correspondence of semantics. The more ability that people possess; the more complex sentences they could arrange. They combine simple sentences to form a complex sentence with high quality of structure and meaning. If they could do so, their ability of understanding complex sentence is also developed. To perform a communicative conversation, the speaker and the hearer should have at least the same level of understanding sentences. If the speaker and the hearer have different abilities in understanding sentences, the communicative conversation will hardly occur. In short, conversation occurs when two people who have the same understanding about the intention of a sentence are conducting the process of transferring and receiving meaning.

People have logical concepts which relate the meaning between sentences. The logical concepts emerged when they understand the meaning between sentences. When a sentence is related to another sentence, the idea conveyed becomes stronger than a stand-alone sentence. The relation among those sentences is called as entailment. Entailment happens when the truth of one proposition affects the other one (Griffiths, 2006: 25). Those two propositions must correlate with one another. In short, entailment is a relationship between sentences where the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of the other.

The phenomenon of entailment can be found in daily conversation, but most people rarely recognize this phenomenon since they are not really aware about its emergence. In order to recognize the existence of entailment, people need to pay more attention on every single sentence. The recognition can be initiated by noticing sentences which are closely related. Furthermore, when sentences are closely related, there is a bigger possibility of the sentences to entail each other.

People in general conduct conversation to share each other‟s ideas. The conversation can possibly occur whether in real life or in a movie since movie is a reflection of real life in terms of culture and conversation. Movie portrays the social life of daily life which is presented more aesthetically by adding some fictions or fantasies. Thus, the phenomenon of entailment can also be found in a movie. In fact, language phenomena are not something which is hard to find in a movie. One of the movies which contains entailment in its dialogues is The Da Vinci Code movie.

The Da Vinci Code (2012) is a movie based on Dan Brown‟s international best seller novel with the same tittle written in 2003. It was filmed in 2006, and is directed by Ron Howard. The Da Vinci Code is a thriller mystery movie which tells about historical secrets. This movie is categorized as high rated movie as it can be seen by the awards which have been received. The awards must be given not only because of the enthusiasm of people in watching it, but also because the quality from the movie itself.

The researcher‟s interest in analyzing the entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie is basically because the characters of the movie mostly talk about codes and symbols. Sentences about codes are usually connected each other, so they have high possibility to entail each other since entailment possibly happens when the sentences are interrelated. That is why the researcher presumes that this movie contains enough entailments to be analyzed. Moreover, the high appreciation of the public regarding this movie has motivated the researcher in conducting this study. In addition, since semantic entailment researches are considered as scarcity in academic writing, the researcher is more motivated and challenged to contribute her contemplation regarding this study.

B. Research Focus

Based on the background of the study, there are several linguistic phenomena which can be analyzed from the research topic. The first problem which can be identified is the lexical relations in the movie. The relation between words in the movie can be scrutinized by lexical relations which covers synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy. As a matter of fact, the characters of movie mostly talk about religion. Thus, semantic approach can be applied to analyze the lexical relations regarding religion performed in the movie.

Furthermore, the second problem is related to the use of non-verbal communication conducted by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie. Similar with the other movies, the characters in this movie also perform some non-verbal communications which can be indicated by visual signs such as nodding head, crossing fingers, holding up a thumb, and etc.

The last problem emerged is the meaning of symbols in The Da Vinci Code movie. As the movie concerns in revealing historical secrets, it contains some ancient symbols which the meanings can be analyzed by semiotic approach. In addition, the most vivid symbol reflected by the movie is feminism symbol.

However, as stated in the background of the study, the researcher is interested to conduct a research in semantic, particularly entailment because it becomes a language phenomenon which appears quite significant in this movie. Entailment can be found in written texts or even in daily conversations or movies. Therefore, to limit the problems, the research is focused on the application of semantic entailment uttered by the characters of The Da Vinci Code movie. Thus, the researcher observes all the utterances performed by the whole characters of The Da Vince Code movie.

Based on the research focus, the researcher formulates the problems into the following questions.

1. What types of entailment are uttered by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie?

2. What are the orders of entailment applied by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie?

3. What are the approaches used to detect the entailment in the utterances found in The Da Vinci Code movie?

C. Objectives of the Study

Based on the formulation of problems, the objectives of the research are: 1. to identify the types of entailment uttered by the characters in The Da Vinci

Code movie,

2. to describe the orders of entailment applied by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie, and

3. to explain the approaches to detect the occurrence of entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie.

D. Significance of the Study

The research is concerned with the employment of semantic entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie, and it has theoretical and/ or practical significance for readers from different backgrounds.

1. English Department Student

This research is expected to be useful for English Department students, especially Linguistics students as an appropriate reference in studying Semantics particularly regarding entailment since the research scrutinizes entailment.

2. Other Researchers

For other researchers, hopefully this research could motivate and inspire them to conduct further research concerned with entailment. Also, they could add this research as bibliographical variation to give more knowledge about entailment. They hopefully could improve their research to be much better than this study.

3. Lecturers

This study is expected to be included in the subject of learning in order to help the students understand more about entailment in an easier way.

4. Readers in General

This research hopefully could be beneficial for readers in general in enriching their knowledge about entailment, and hopefully could trigger their awareness about the occurrence of entailment in their daily conversation.

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research. The discussion includes literature review, previous studies, conceptual framework, and analytical construct. The literature review section consists of the literature studies of semantics, semantic relation, entailment, and The Da Vinci Code. The previous studies section explains about previous research findings which are used as the reference of approach and method. Meanwhile, conceptual framework presents the mind map of the theories done in this study. In addition, Analytical Construct shows a diagram of the theories used in this research.

A. Literature Review 1. Semantics

Griffiths (2006: 1) defines semantics as one of the two main branches of linguistics, and it is basically the study of meaning. Griffiths also states that semantics is a study of word meaning and sentence meaning. This definition makes clear that semantics is different from pragmatics which relates language and its contexts. Borg (2006: 19) strengthens Griffiths‟ theory by stating that a semantic theory is focused on sentence meaning, but not in speaker‟s meaning. Moreover, semantics as the study of meaning in a systematic way is stated by Kreidler (1998: 3). He also adds that when semantics is linked with language, it will concern with how language organizes and expresses meanings. Furthermore,

the word „meaning‟ has many different senses as stated by Nouwen (2011: 1). He

explicit in dealing with meanings itself. He gives two examples to strengthen his opinion:

(1) What is the meaning of natural language expression? a) that to which it refers

b) that which the speaker intends to communicate with it

(Nouwen, 2011: 1) Nouwen explains that the first answer (1-a) is what is normally concerned with the study of natural language in semantics. Basically, semantics deals with the relationship between a sentence and the actual world. On the other hand, the second answer (1-b) can be identified as typical to pragmatic inquiry because pragmatics deals with a sentence meaning in a particular context. However, practically there are some phenomena in which pragmatic meaning appear to depend on semantic meaning.

Carston (2008: 38) has his own concept in distinguishing semantics and

pragmatics. He strongly states that pragmatics, which concerns with speaker‟s

intention, also contributes on determining semantic content. Bach (in Carston, 2008:41) adds that there are two kinds of context to differentiate semantics and pragmatics: narrow and broad. The narrow context belongs to semantics, while the broad context belongs to pragmatics. Yule (1998: 4) differentiates the three terms; semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. According to him, syntax deals with relationship between linguistic forms, and how it is formed. Pragmatics is a relationship between linguistic forms and its users. Meanwhile, semantics is a relationship between linguistic forms and the real things which are exist in the world, and are referred by the linguistic forms.

There are three topics discussed under the study of semantics. Those three are semantic features, semantic roles, and semantic relations. According to Yule (2010: 114), semantic features are elements indicated with sign of plus (+) or minus (-) to differentiate the words meaning in a language. Then, semantic roles are a part played by noun phrases in a sentence. In addition, semantic relations concern with the relation between meanings in sentences (Hjorland, 2007).

2. Semantic Relation

Hjorland (2007) states that relation between concepts or meanings are under the study of semantic relations. In order to find the meaning of lexemes of any language, recognition of two or more lexemes is needed to find the existence of semantic relation (Kreidler, 1998: 86). Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 173) divide semantic relations into three types: lexical relation, phrasal relation, sentential relation.

a. Lexical Relation

Yule (2010: 116) explains that words can also have relationship with each other; they are synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy. He also states that when two or more words are synonymous, their meanings are closely related. The words are substituted for each other in some cases. For example, for expressing that someone is asking for an answer of a message, he may say What was his answer? or What was his reply?. From these expressions, it can be obtained that the words answer and reply have the same meaning at the same context.

In contrast with synonymy, Trask (2007: 256) describes antonymy as words relation where the two words have fully different meanings. Antonymy

itself can be divided as two types: gradable antonyms and non-gradable antonyms or complementary pairs (Yule, 2010: 117). Gradable antonym, which is also called as non-binary antonym reveals extreme opposite of series of word, such as hot and cold or wide and narrow. Then, the second type of antonym is binary antonym/ binary antonym which happens when the existence of a word triggers the possibilities of the existence of another word, such as alive and dead or open and shut. Meanwhile, the words such as wife and husband or above and below are the examples of converse antonyms. According to Kreidler (1998: 105), converse antonym is the type of antonym which necessarily has two or more valencies. Accordingly, Kreidler (1998: 101) analogously explains that non binary antonym is portrayed as polar antonym because they are opposite ends with territory between them; just like North and South Poles. Besides, binary antonym can be called as hemispheric antonym as there is no space in between Northern and Southern (or Easter and Western); there is only a line of demarcation.

The other type of a lexical relation is hyponymy. According to Yule, (2010: 118), hyponymy is the relationship between two words or more where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another. For example, rose is a hyponym of flower, means that rose is a kind of flower. Here, flower is called as superordinate or the higher level, while rose and/or the other kinds of flower are called co-hyponyms.

b. Phrasal Relation

According to Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 189-92), the second semantic relation is located in phrase form which is called as phrasal relations. This kind of meaning relation can be noun-centered meaning or verb-centered meaning. The example of noun-centered meaning relation can be found in adjective-noun combination, such as good boy, and in noun compounds, such as dog house and pick pocket. Then, the verb-centered relation is closely related to thematic roles of verb. Thematic roles in the sentence The girl found a little pebble are agent and theme, while in the sentence The girl put the little pebble on the floor are agent, theme and goal. The knowledge about find and put decided the thematic roles. In addition, the final type of semantic relation is sentential relation which deals with relationship among sentences.

c. Sentential Relation

As stated by Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 195), the last semantic relation is sentential meaning relation. The meaning of noun phrase and verb phrase in a sentence built its meaning. The other parts of speech like adverb also add and/or affect the sentence meaning. Finally, related to this type, Murphy (2003: 8) argues that there are three main sentential semantic relations. They are contradiction, paraphrase, and entailment.

Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 198) define contradiction as a sentence relation where the truth of a sentence means the falseness of another sentence. Kreidler (1998: 299) also adds that contradiction is the relation between two opposite propositions. It means that if one is true, the other must be false.

Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 198-9) give an example of contradiction. The sentence Elizabeth II is Queen of England contradicts Elizabeth II is a man. A queen is always a woman and never be a man. Thus, if the first sentence is true, the second must be false. Another example is if Scott is a baby is true, it is false that Scott is an adult, because someone is never being a baby and an adult at the same time. In conclusion, if a sentence is said to be the negation of the other then they are in a relation of contradiction.

The two other sentential meaning relations i.e. paraphrase and entailment, and both have similarity. Huford and Heasley (2007: 113) explain that the relationship between these two relations is parallel to the relationship between hyponymy and synonymy. They add that if synonymy is symmetric hyponymy, paraphrase is symmetric entailment. According to Crystal (1998: 350), paraphrase presents some alternative versions of sentences to express the same meaning. She gives examples of paraphrase: The dog is eating a bone, A bone is being eaten by the dog, It’s the dog who is eating a bone. The three sentences have a single semantic representation, which is paraphrase.

3. Entailment

Whenever people utter statements, they often convey entailment whether intentionally or unintentionally because the basis of semantic description is the notion of entailment. According to Kreidler (1998: 12) entailment is two statements which may be related in such a way that if one is true, the other must be true. In other words, entailment is a relationship in which the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of the other one. In accordance, Yule (1998:

129) states that entailment is something that follows from what is mentioned before.

Crystal (1998: 169) defines entailment as a term delivered from logic, and has been used as a part of the study of semantics; which is called as entailingness. Entailment refers to a relation between a pair of preposition where the truth of second preposition necessarily follows the truth of the first. For example: I can see a dog entails I can see an animal. One cannot assert the first sentence and deny the second one.

Nouwen (2011: 2) explains that entailment can be used to establish whether two sentences are semantically independent, semantically related, or semantically identical. Technically, Nouwen portrays entailment as Sentence S entails sentence S’ if and only if S is true, S’ is true too. For instance, Mary owns a pink sweater entails Mary owns a sweater because if Mary has a pink sweater, she surely has a sweater.

By considering the definition of entailment mixed with the idea that denial of something true is false, it can be concluded that a sentence together with the denial of one of its entailment formulates a contradiction. From the sentences above the contradiction that can be obtained is Mary owns a pink sweater, but she does not own a sweater.

a. Types of Entailment

According to some scholars, entailment can be divided into several types. However, every scholar has their own opinion about the types of entailment. Yet, sometimes there are several similarities from each scholar. Griffiths (2006)

divides entailment as one-way entailment and two-way entailment. His theory also tells that entailments are varied in case of its relation from one or two direction.

1) One-way Entailment

Brinton (2000: 131) says that one-way entailment is different from paraphrase. It happens when the second sentence is a consequence of the first sentence. According to Crystal (1998: 169-70), this kind of entailment is a term which refers to a relation between a pair of sentences. He clarifies this by saying that the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows the truth of the first. Pennacchiotti (2005) calls it as „strict entailment‟. He explains that it is when the sentences carry two different facts, but one of them can be inferred from the other. Therefore, in one-way entailment, a sentence does not paraphrase the other sentence. One of them is like the conclusion of the other. It is the entailment that works only in one direction.

Kreidler (1998: 86) provides an illustration of this kind of entailment. It is when two propositions are labeled as „p‟ and „q‟. If „p‟ is true, „q‟ must also be true, but if „q‟ is true, it does not necessarily follow that „p‟ is also true since it can be false. For example, if the sentence My jacket is navy is true, then the sentence My jacket is blue is true. However, if the sentence My jacket is blue is true, then the sentence My jacket is navy is not always true. Thus, one-way entailment or strict entailment is if one sentence is true, the other sentence must also be true; when one sentence is false, the other is also false.

2) Two-way Entailment

Griffiths (2006: 27) defines two-way entailment between sentences as paraphrase. In contrast with one-way entailment, two-way entailment has meaning relationship and the sentences that contain two-way entailment paraphrase each other. A paraphrase carries fact that is expressed differently. Kreidler (1998: 86) adds that a paraphrase is an alternative way in conveying the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. It is the relation between two propositions; when one is true or false, the other one always follows. Meanwhile, Hurford and Heasley (2007: 113) illustrate it as a special symmetric case of semantic relationship.

Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 197) say that paraphrase or two-way entailment is sometimes expressed in the term of active-passive pairs. For example, the sentence The mosquito bites the baby and The baby is bitten by the mosquito are in relation of two-way entailment or paraphrase. The entailment is expressed in active-passive pairs. The second sentence is the passive form of the first sentence, and the first sentence is the active form. However, in some cases, the active-passive pairs are not in the form of paraphrases. The sentence Every student in the class speaks two languages is not the paraphrase of the sentence Two languages are spoken by every in the class. It is clear that each person in the first sentence speaks two languages. However, it is possible that each individual speaks different languages. In contrast, the two languages in the second sentence are always the same languages for everyone in the room.

Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 198) also add that a phrase in a sentence can also be substituted into a single word to create a two-way entailment.

She can go, She may go, She must go may be expressed differently, such as by using this form: She is able to go, She is permitted to go, She is obliged to go. The sentence Alisa saw Ron can also be expressed in a longer sentence like Alisa perceived Ron using his eyes. Thus, if those first sentences are true, it is a must that the second sentences are also true, and vice versa. Rambaud (2012: 70) called this type of entailment as „equivalent‟.

Besides Griffiths, Murphy (2003) also has his own types of entailments. Murphy categorizes the types of entailment into mutual entailment and negative entailment.

1) Mutual Entailment

Mutual entailment is actually the same as Gtiffiths‟ two-way entailment/paraphrase. Therefore, Murphy (2003: 248) defines this type of entailment as synonymy among propositions, not words. For instance: Forget about closing the window entails Let the window opened. The idea of both sentences is the same, but the way of delivering them is different.

2) Negative Entailment

Murphy (2003: 98) also has the idea about negative entailment. Negative entailment is an entailment which is expressed in a negative form. For example, It’s a cat entails It’s not a cow. The truth of the first and the second sentence is in semantic relation of entailment although the second sentence is presented in the form of negative expression.

Besides Griffiths and Murphy, Lakoff and Johnsen (2003: 91) state about one more type of entailment; which is metaphorical entailment. They define

metaphorical entailment as the imparting of a characteristic of the source domain to the target domain. The source domain is the metaphorical image, while the target domain is the concept receiving metaphorical treatment. Therefore, the relationship between the source and the target domain is regarded as entailment or specifically called as metaphorical entailment. When the source domain is interpreted to be the target domain, metaphorical entailment happens (Kovesces, 2003: 121). Kevesces gives an example of a rare metaphorical entailment happens on an entire conversation as follow.

Teacher : You look like a healthy apple. Kovesces : I hope it‟s not rotten inside.

Teacher : I hope, too, that it will last a long time

(Kovesces, 2003: 123) In this example, people are portrayed as fruit (apple). An apple could be rotten inside although it is healthy-looking outside. Both healthy apple and rotten inside are the target domain metaphors which are associated with the source domain metaphor or a good person and an evil person. Shortly, healthy apple and rotten inside apple are associated with human. In this context, apple is the illustration of a person, and healthy apple means a good people, while rotten inside apple means a bad people or a person who has evil heart. Moreover, the first speaker added it will last a long time which is still associated with the idea of a rotten inside. The first speaker hopes that Kovesces will keep being a good person for a long time, and will not change into a person with evil heart.

b. Orders of Entailment

According to Wilson and Sperber (in Horn and Ward, 2006: 390), when people are producing sentences, they will automatically construct an ordered set

of foreground and background entailments. In his pragmatics book, Yule (1998: 33) also argues about the two kinds of entailments which are background entailment and foreground entailment.

1) Background Entailment

Background entailment is indicated when a sentence is true, it is necessarily related to the truth of a number of entailments. The numbers of background entailments following the main sentence is considered as logical concept. Yule (1998: 33) gives an example as follow.

(1) Rover chased three squirrels. (=p) (a) Something chased three squirrels. (=q) (b) Rover did something to three squirrels. (=r) (c) Rover chased three of something. (=s)

(d) Something happened. (=t)

When a speaker uttered Rover chased three squirrels, he is committed to the truth of those background entailments or the logical concept (=q, =r, =s, =t). 2) Foreground Entailment

The second order of entailment is foreground entailment. While background entailment gives information related to the context, foreground entailment contributes to the main point of the sentence (Blass, 1990: 137). Yule (1998: 33) in his pragmatics book adds that foreground entailment is the main assumption of the speaker. Therefore, the background entailment exists to help the hearer in finding the foreground entailment.

Wilson and Sperber (on Blass, 1990: 137) explain some special linguistic devices which could indicate the foreground entailment. They are clefting and stressing.

a. Clefting

Yule (1998: 34) calls clefting as “it-cleft” construction. Clefting is used to help people to focus on a particular part of the sentence, and to emphasize what people actually want to say. It is performed by adding a new part of the sentence

in order to gain the hearer‟s attention. The example of clefting is presented as the following sentences.

(1) It was ROVER that chased the squirrels. (2) It wasn‟t ME who took your money.

The adding of „it was‟ and „it wasn‟t‟ are aimed to give more attention to the subjects which are „Louis‟ and „him‟.

b. Stressing

Yule (1998: 33) argues that a speaker sometimes will give a stress in their utterances. The stressed part can be assumed as the foreground which is very useful to help the hearer in interpreting the intended meaning of the speaker. Yule (1998: 33) presents the example of stressing in the following sentences.

(1) Rover chased THREE squirrels. (2) ROVER chased three squirrels.

Both sentences share the same grammatical structure. However, the capitalized words indicate the different intentions of the speaker. The capitalized words show that the speaker tries to give stress on that part as those are the most important parts of each sentence.

c. Approach to Detect Entailment

According to Condoravdi ((2002: 5), there are two approaches to detect entailment: contexted clause and context matching.

1) Contexted Clauses

The contexted clauses compromise the actual fact and the fact which is supposed to hold. Some facts are hold in certain context. One context might be derived into several numbers of facts. In this type of approach, Condoravdi (2002:

5) on his journal states that „flattening‟ of a context plays a significant role to

determine whether or not the clauses are concerned in one context. This approach is actually parallel with background of entailment because both are emphasizing

the idea of „flattening‟. The application of this approach is presented in the

following.

(1) Louis ate two mangoes. (a) Something happened.

(b) Someone eats two of something. (c) Someone ate two mangoes. (d) Louis ate two of something.

(e) Louis did something to two mangoes.

There are a number of facts about what holds in the initial context. The examples indicated by a, b, c, d, and e are holding the idea of Louis ate two mangoes. As a result, all those sentences can be considered entail each other. Logically, the more complex the initial sentence is; the more following facts that supposed to hold the complex sentence itself.

2) Context Matching

According to Condoravdi (2002: 6), context matching can be done by comparing at least two texts, and then assuming that both texts describe the same

initial context, locating sub-contexts introduced by the two sentences that have parallel relations to the initial context, and identifying local entailments using first-order reasoning for the contexts which are paired.

Mirkin (2011: 16) explains regarding the goal of context matching which is to identify the compatible contexts for text expressions which are not necessarily substitutable, and are not necessarily lexical. Context matching approach is useful for the phenomena where meaning correspondence is more needed rather than substitution. For instance, the meaning of the term alien (which actually means foreign, but is associated as extraterrestrial creature nowadays) should be matched to the category of outer space even though both terms are typically not substitutable. The application context matching can be seen in the following example.

(1) Nobody certainly knows whether alien exists or not.

(2) The existence of aliens in outer space remains a big question.

Those sentences above have similar ideas; in which alien is the part of outer space. Even though alien is not the substitute of the word outer space, the word alien here cannot be replaced by any random nouns such as cow, fairy, or human. Thus, context matching only happens when two texts share the same understanding.

4. The Da Vinci Code Movie

Figure 1. The Cover of The Da Vinci Code Movie

The Da Vinci Code is a movie based on Dan Brown‟s international bestseller novel with the same tittle written in 2003. It was filmed in 2006, and directed by Ron Howard. The Da Vinci Code starred by Tom Hanks (as Robert Longdon), Audrey Tautou (Sophie Neveu), Ian McKellen (as Sir Leigh Teabing), Alfred Molina (Bishop Aringarosa), Jurgen Prochnow (as Andrew Vernet), Jean Reno (as Captain Police Bazu Fache), and Paul Bettany (as Silas).

In accordance to the novel, The Da Vinci Code is also a controversy since it was a story of finding the Holy Grail. Rome Catholic Church claimed that this movie was out of context of 2000 years of hidden the Holy Grail, and that Jesus Christ and Maria Magdalena marriage was not true. It was a worldwide debate to

get this movie banned. Meanwhile, Dan Brown said that the description of arts, architectures, documents, and several rituals in the novel are all accurate.

Although, many negative responses arose, this movie has successfully earned US $224 million in the first week of movie premiere, and $758 million for total earns. That is why The Da Vinci Code became the second highest total earning movie in 2006.

For the achievement, The Da Vinci Code movie was nominated in some awards; Golden Globe Awards, 12th Critics‟ Choice Awards, 49th Annual Grammy Awards, 27th Golden Raspberry Awards, 11th Satellite Awards, Teen Choice Awards, and etc.

As The Da Vinci Code is a movie about codes and symbols, it can be observed by semiotic approach. However, the researcher is interested to observe this movie by semantic approach because the researcher is intended to find the elements of entailment applied in the movie.

5. Previous Studies

There have been some conducted researches that deal with entailment. However, those previous researches are different from this research for several reasons. The first previous research is “A Semantic Analysis of Entailment Applied by the Main Character in the Movie Life of Pi” by Hilyatus Sa‟adah (2014). The research has two different objectives which are identifying the types and orders of entailment the movie Life of Pi. There are 35 data obtained from this research, and each of the data is identified according the types and the orders. In the types of entailment, one-way entailment obtains the first rank with 18

occurrences as it is commonly uttered by the main character. Meanwhile, for the second objective, foreground entailment which is expressed by clefting has 17 times ordered the entailments.

Meanwhile, the second previous research is “Entailment, Intentionality and Text Understanding” conducted by Cleo Condoravdi, Dick Crouch, Valeria de Paiva, Reinhard Stolle, Daniel G. Bobrow (2002). The study aims to detect the entailment and contradiction relations between texts. The study describes a contextual clausal representation that permits an extended range of intentional entailments and contradictions to be easily detected.

Both previous studies are conducted under the same scope with this research. On the contrary, they are different from this research since the first study does not explain about how to detect entailment. Meanwhile, the second previous study does not explain about types and orders of entailment. Instead, it discusses the detection of entailment and contradiction between texts. Hence, this research combines the main points of both previous studies to reveal the entailments in The Da Vinci Code movie. In fact, The Da Vinci Code is a mystery movie which combines fiction and history, thus this type of movie is different from the first previous study which is a fictional movie. As a result, this research covers three objectives which are identifying the types of entailment, describing the orders of entailment, and explaining the approaches to detect the entailment uttered by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie.

B. Conceptual Framework

The research focuses on entailment applied by the character in The Da Vinci Code movie. Therefore, the study of entailment is under the scope of semantics, since it explores about the meaning of the language. In semantics, there are some relations of the words, phrases, or sentences related to their meanings; the relations are called semantic relations. Meaning relations between words are called lexical semantic relation. Phrasal relations represent semantic relationships between phrases. Then, entailment is a sentential semantic relation, which is meaning relation between sentences.

Entailment can be described as propositions which are definitely true when a give proposition is true. In other word, it is when the truth of a sentence depends on the truth of another sentence. According to Griffiths (2005), there are two types of entailment: one-way entailment, two-way entailment. Therefore, two others entailment are presented by Murphy (2003), which are mutual entailment and negative entailment. However, mutual entailment shares the same idea with two-way entailment. In addition, Lakoff and Johnsen (2003) present one last type of entailment which is called as metaphorical entailment.

In terms of the order, Yule (1998) classifies entailment as background entailment and foreground entailment. Unlike background entailment, foreground entailment is divided into clefting and stressing. Meanwhile, Condoravdi (2002) presents two approaches to detect entailment: contexted clause and context matching.

In parallel with the literature review of this study, the researcher presents an analytical construct in the following figure.

Clefting

Stressing

A Semantic Analysis of Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie

Figure 2. Analytical Construct Types of Entailment One-way Entailment Two-way Entailment/ Mutual Entailment Negative Entailment Metaphorical Entailment Semantics Semantic Features Semantic Relations Semantic Roles Lexical Relations Phrasal Relations Sentential Relation Relations Contradiction Entailment Paraphrase Orders of Entailment Background Entailment Foreground Entailment

Utterances by the characters in The Da Vinci Code Movie

Approaches to Detect Entailment Contexted Clauses Context Matching

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research. It contains of six sections; which are type of the study, form, context, and source of data, data collection technique, research instruments, data analysis techniques, and data trustworthiness.

A. Type of Study

This research used descriptive-qualitative approach. Descriptive-qualitative research aimed to make a narrative or textual description of the phenomena under a study. It means that descriptive qualitative occurs in natural environment where human activities happen. Strauss and Corbin (1998) explain that qualitative research does not only scrutinize the finding on quantity. Instead, some of the data may be quantified with the background information of the subject under the study. Descriptive-qualitative research does not employ statistic or numerical counting as the proof. Therefore, this research was emphasized on describing the phenomena in their context by interpreting the data, and applying a content data analysis method. Furthermore, qualitative research deals with study about people‟s lives, experiences, and behavior, so it is in line with the object of this study, which was a movie. In addition, qualitative research is different from quantitative research as Auerbech and Silverstein (2003: 4) state that quantitative research which sometimes claimed as the more traditional research leads to testing research, while the qualitative research leads to hypothesis-generating research.

According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 167), the purpose of qualitative research tends to be descriptive rather than prescriptive. It was in parallel with the purposes of this research, which were to describe and to identify the type and the order of entailment, and also to explain the approaches to detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie.

B. Form, Context, and Source of Data

Data are the recorded information or materials which are used in some researches; they are taken from the data source. According to Moleong (2004: 157), the main data of qualitative research are utterances and actions. As a qualitative research, the data of this study were utterances performed by the characters in the movie The Da Vinci Code. Meanwhile, the context of the data was the dialogues between the characters, or merely monologues by a certain character.

According to Denscombe (2007: 286), the source of data in qualitative research can be in the form of words, which can be found in the spoken utterances or written sentences. This research was dealing with a movie, so the words were performed in spoken utterances. Thus, the source of the data of this research was the movie itself. Overall, the data were taken from The Da Vinci Code movie and its transcript.

C. Data Collection Techniques

The data was collected by using note taking technique which will be further analyzed by semantic entailment theories. Therefore, there are several procedures of collecting data conducted by the researcher presented as follows.

a. the researcher found The Da Vinci Code movie which is considered appropriate with the research topic,

b. then she watched The Da Vinci Code movie,

c. then she downloaded the movie script from the website: www.yifysubtitles.com,

d. the researcher collected the data which were considered as entailment,

e. the researcher classified the data based on the types and orders of entailment, f. the researcher found the approaches to detect entailment in the movie, and g. the data were transferred into the data sheet.

D. Research Instrument

There were two instruments used in this research: primary and secondary instrument. The primary instrument of this study was the researcher herself as she collected and analyzed the data by herself. Lincoln and Guba (in Vanderstoep and Jognston, 2009: 188-9) explain that the best instrument for qualitative study is human because human has undergone experiences. In accordance with this, Given (2008: 737) clarifies that the primary instrument of qualitative research is the researcher because the researcher takes her own views, beliefs, feeling, and assumptions along the research. As the primary instrument, the researcher planned the research, collected the data, analyzed the data, and reported the data result. The researcher also used the data sheet as the secondary instrument in the study. Therefore, the form of the data sheet is presented in the following table.

Table 1. The Sample Data Sheet of Types and Orders of Entailment, and Approaches to Detect Entailment in the Characters in The Da Vinci Code Movie

Notes :

OE : One-way Entailment CC : Contexted Clause TE : Two-way/Mutual Entailment CM : Context Matching NE : Negative Entailment

ME : Metaphorical Entailment

BE : Background Entailment FE : Foreground Entailment ST : Stressing

CL : Clefting

(the words stressed are capitalized)

No Data

Types of Entailment Orders of

Entailment Approach

Explanation OE TE NE ME BE FE CC CM

CL ST

1. _Naveu: Your God doesn’t forgive

murderers. He BURNS them.

√ √ √ Silas was going to murder

Naveu, so Naveu convinced him by uttering those sentences. From those sentences, one-way entailment can be seen from the truth of God burns them means God does not forgive murderers.

However, if God does not forgive murderers, He would also do something else to the murderers; not just burning them. Naveu stresses the word burns as she wants Silas to be afraid and stop his attempt to kill her. Therefore, the entailment of the sentences is detected by applying contexted clause approach because there is flattening in the sentences.

E. Data Analysis Techniques

According to Bungin (2007: 107), in qualitative research, data collecting method and technique of data analysis are tied inseparably because the data analysis method and technique have actually been started when the researcher conducted the data collection technique. Therefore, the researcher used qualitative data analysis technique, and there were several steps of examining the data:

1. identifying the data to categorize them into which types and orders of entailment and approaches to detect entailment,

2. classifying the data based on the types, orders, and approaches to distinguish them from each other,

3. analyzing the classified and coded data to answer the research questions, 4. checking the accuracy of the data,

5. reporting the data in the finding and discussion, and 6. drawing the conclusion of the data.

F. Data Trustworthiness

To ensure the data findings, there must be credibility in the research (Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009: 179). Hence, a technique to enhance reliability of data is needed. Triangulation is a technique of checking the validity of data which utilizes something out of the data as a checking comparison to the data (Moleong, 2004: 330). The researcher conducted triangulation in order to increase the readers‟ belief that the research was trustworthy.

In order to gain the credibility of the data, the researcher conducted triangulation based on the theories and researcher or observer. The theories used

by the researcher were Griffiths‟, Murphy‟s, and Lakoff and Johnsen‟s theories about the types of entailment, Yule‟s theory about the orders of entailment, and Condoravdi‟s about approaches to detect entailment. Moreover, the researcher consulted the research with the lecturer who is expert in this field. In addition, the researcher also conducted triangulation of data by having peer reviewing with the other students to check the data and ensure their accuracy. The students chosen to be the peer review partners were students of linguistics study. Through their review, the data was checked again to validate the suitability of the theories and the research done by the researcher.

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findings and discussion. The findings are presented in the table of findings which shows the frequency of occurrence of types and orders of entailment, and also approaches to detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie. Meanwhile, the discussion presents further explanation of the findings which describes about the objectives of the research which cover the identification of types of entailment, the description of orders of entailment, and the explanation of the approaches to detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie. To elucidate the description, some examples from the data sheet are presented in the discussion section.

A. Findings

The findings of types and orders of entailment, and also approaches to detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Findings of Types and Orders of Entailment, and Approaches to Detect Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie

No. Types

Orders Approaches

T O T A L Background Entailment

Foreground Entailment _Contexted Clause

Context Matching Clefting Stressing

1. One-way

Entailment 10 3 13 19 7 26

2.

Two-way/ Mutual Entailment

6 1 10 10 7 17

3. Negative

Entailment 2 1 3 3 3 6

4. Metaphorical

Entailment 6 0 2 4 4 8

Based on Table 2, there are four types of entailment i.e. one-way entailment, two-way/mutual entailment, negative entailment, and metaphorical entailment. All of the types of entailment appear in the utterances spoken by the characters in The Da Vinci Code movie. Therefore, the highest frequency of the types of entailment is 26, and is attained by one-way entailment. One-way entailment obtains the highest frequency as it is the basic model of entailment which is commonly applied by people in daily conversation. On the other hand, negative entailment becomes the least frequent one among all the types of entailment as it only appears 6 times. The reason why negative entailment becomes the rarest entailment found in The Da Vinci Code movie is because the characters are seldom expressing their mind in the form of negative sentences. Instead, they tend to talk using positive form of sentences.

Table 2 also shows that there are two orders of entailment; which are background entailment and foreground entailment. Furthermore, the foreground entailment is divided into clefting and stressing. Apparently, all the orders of entailment are applied in The Da Vinci Code movie conversation. However, most of entailments found in the movie are ordered based on the foreground. It can be seen as foreground entailment appears 33 times, and the foreground order occurrence is dominated by stressing with 28 occurrences. On the other hand, the least order to occur is clefting with 5 occurrences. Therefore, stressing dominates the orders of entailment as the characters tend to express their opinions towards their talking partners by stressing a certain word to deliver the important message

Furthermore, Table 2 also presents contexted clause and context matching as the approaches to detect entailment. Accordingly, both approaches are applied by the researcher to detect the entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie. From the total 57 data, contexted clause approach is applied more frequently rather than context matching. As a matter of fact, 36 data of entailment are detected by contexted clause approach, while the rest entailments are detected by context matching approach. Moreover, the researcher tends to apply contexted clause more frequently rather than context matching because most of the sentences with entailment possibility are interconnected in the context rather than having two words with meaning correspondence but not substitutable.

In addition, Table 2 shows two combinations of the objectives of the research. The first combination is types and order in which all the types of entailment appear in the orders of entailment, except for metaphorical entailment which does not appear in the clefting−foreground entailment. Metaphorical entailment deals with source domain and target domain sentences. Both sentences are connected metaphorically, and the meaning inside the sentences will probably change if there is any addition of a new word; just as the sign of clefting. Thus, clefting is almost impossible to happen in any condition of metaphorical entailment. The second objectives combination is types and approaches. As it seems, all the types of entailment are detected by contexted clause approach or context matching approach. Finally, the further explanation of the findings is described in the discussion section.

B. Discussion

In this section, the researcher elaborates the objectives of the research which have been briefly described in the findings section. The elaboration includes the discussion and examples of each objectives of the research covering types and orders of entailment, and also approaches to detect entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie.

1. Types of Entailment in The Da Vinci Code Movie

Based on the findings, there are four types of entailment found in The Da Vinci Code movie. They are one-way entailment, two-way/mutual entailment, negative entailment, and metaphorical entailment. Every type of entailment found in the research object has different frequency. The highest occurrence of entailment found in the data sheet is one-way entailment, while the lowest occurrence is negative entailment. Therefore, the following description presents in-depth explanation of each type of entailment along with examples taken from the data sheet.

a. One-way Entailment

One-way entailment is a term which refers to a relation of pair sentences where the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows the truth of the first one (Crystal, 1998: 169-70). This type of entailment becomes the most dominant entailment found in The Da Vinci Code movie. As the basic model of entailment, one-way entailment happens when the second sentence is a consequence of the first sentence. Therefore, the characters in the movie mostly use one-way entailments in their conversation since it can be seen in the data sheet where the

application of one-way entailment is 26 times over total 57 data. In the movie, one-way entailment is formulated by the orders of background and foreground. Furthermore, the example of one-way entailment which is ordered by the background is given in the following datum.

Naveu : But the Templars were created to protect The Holy Land.

Longdon : That was a cover to hide their true goal, according to this myth.

(Datum 21) Naveu and Longdon discuss about The Templars. Naveu states that the Templars were created to protect The Holy Land, while Longdon states that The Templars was a cover to hide their true goal. Therefore, the possessive pronoun their here refers to The Priory of Sion. Thus, if The Templars were created to protect the Holy Land, The Templars must be a cover to hide The Priory of Sion‟s true goal. On the contrary, if the Templars are a cover to hide The Priory of Sion‟s true goal, they are not always created to protect the Holy Land. That is why the entailment of the sentences is considered as one-way because the direction of the entailment can only occur from one way. Furthermore, both sentences share the same knowledge which makes them ordered by the background. The background order is created because the first sentence is expanded in the second one; that is way the researcher to apply contexted clause approach to detect the entailment.

Another example of entailment with background order and detected by contexted clause approach is presented in the following datum.

Leigh Teabing : And in 325 Anno Domini, he decided to unify Rome under a single religion, Christianity. Christianity was on the rise.

Sir Leigh Teabing argues that Anno Domini decided to unify Rome under a single religion, and by that time Christianity was on the rise. From his utterances, one-way entailment can be seen because if Anno Domini decided to unify Rome under a single religion is true; it cannot be denied that Christianity was on the rice in that era. Christianity does not necessarily need Anno Domini‟s decision to be on the rise, instead there were many other ways which possibly caused the rise of Christianity.

The datum clearly shows that the second sentence plays a role as the conclusion of the first sentence which means that the truth of the second sentence is decided by the truth of the first sentence. If the first is true, the second sentence must also be true, but if the first sentence is wrong, the second sentence will definitely wrong. Besides, the second sentence‟s truth has nothing to do with the first sentence. That is how one-way entailment happens. Moreover, both sentences share the same logical concept about the rise of Christianity in Rome under Anno

Domini‟s reign. Thus, background entailment plays a role in ordering the entailment. In accordance, the entailment can be detected by contexted clause.

One more example of one-way entailment with background order is presented as follows.

Silas: It is here, in Paris, Teacher. It hides beneath the Rose in Saint-Sulpice.

(Datum 8) Silas is talking with someone he calls teacher on the phone. They are discussing about the location of something. If the thing being discussed hides beneath the Rose in Saint-Sulpice; the thing must be in Paris. However, if it is in

Paris, it does not necessarily in the Rose in Saint-Sulpice, and/or it could be anywhere. As a result, one-way entailment happens. Therefore, Saint-Sulplace is Roman Catholic Church located in Paris; so both have the same background understanding. Thus, the similarity in background understanding formulates entailment. From the background understanding of Saint-Sulplace and Paris, entailment is detected. Apart from the previous examples, this example employs context matching approach to detect the entailment as Saint-Sulplace and Paris are not substitutable, but are interrelated.

Besides the occurrence of entailment with background order, there are also some which occur with foreground order. As stated in the literature review, there are two kinds of foreground entailment i.e. clefting and stressing. One-way entailment with clefting as the order of entailment is presented as the following example.

Longdon: Not at all. We met ONLY once. We were on a panel together. (Datum 10) In this datum, one-way entailment happens because if they (Longdon and Jacques Saunière) were experienced to be on a panel together; it means they have met at least once. But if they met only once; their meeting probably was not on a panel. They could have met on any other occasion whether before or after their meeting on the panel. As the truth of one sentence controls the truth of the other sentence, one-way entailment occurs. Furthermore, Longdon adds, and stresses the word only as he wants the hearer to be more focused on the context instead of saying We met once. Hence, clefting happens. Therefore, the first sentence is explained more on the second sentence in which flattening happens. The

occurrence of flattening triggers the application of contexted clause approach to detect the entailment.

On the other hand, the occurrence of one-way entailment with clefting order which uses context matching approach does not appear in the data sheet. This kind of one-way entailment does not appear as context matching approach requires two interconnected words in a pair of sentences. If a one-way entailment contains two related words on the sentences; the entailment must be ordered by the background or by stressing if there speaker stresses any word in a sentence. Hence, there is one-way entailment with clefting order that detected by using context matching found in The Da Vinci Code movie.

The last variation of one-way entailment is one-way entailment which is ordered according to stressing. The example is showed in the following.

Ms. Culp: MY SON is a student of yours at Harvard. Michael Culp? He adores you.

(Datum 4) One-way entailment occurs in the Ms. Culp‟s sentences because the truth of the Michael Culp‟s adoration toward Robert Longdon (the hearer) indicates the truth that Michael Culp is the student of Harvard where Longdon works as a lecturer. However, if Michael Culp is the student of Harvard; it does not mean that he adores Longdon. As the speaker stresses my son; it means that she wants Longdon to focus about the truth that the speaker must be the mother of Michael Culp. Meanwhile, He adores you is the explanation derived from the first sentence. Thus, this datum describes the first sentence My son is a student of yours at Harvard in the second sentence He adores you. The first sentence is

positioned as the main sentence, while the second sentence is the explanation which the truth follows the truth of the first sentence. This explanation clarifies that the approach to detect the entailment is contexted clause as contexted clause elaborates one sentence in the following sentences. Therefore, there is also one-way entailment with stressing order that is detected by context matching approach that can be seen from the following example.

Capt B. Fache : So you know something of SECURITY PROCEDURES.

Longdon : Well, I know video surveillance in a museum this size is cost-prohibitive. Most now rely on containment.

(Datum 11) Longon and Captain B. Fache have a conversation about the security procedure of a museum. If Longdon knows the video surveillance in the museum where they are having conversation at that time is cost-prohibitive, he must be knows at least one of security procedures. However, if he knows the security procedures; it does not necessary that he knows the video surveillance because he might know the other security procedures. In short, video surveillance is one of security procedures. Thus, one-way entailment occurs as the truth of Longdon‟s knowledge about security procedure is consequence with his knowledge in video surveillance. Captain B. Fache‟s stressed phrase (security procedure) is intended to make Longdon pay more attention about it as it is important. Meanwhile, context matching is used because there is connection on the word security and surveillance.

b. Two-way/Mutual Entailment

Griffiths (2006: 27) defines two-way entailment between sentences as paraphrase. A paraphrase carries fact that is expressed differently. On the other word, a paraphrase is an alternative way in conveying the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The phenomena of two-way/mutual entailment in The Da Vinci Code movie rank the second according to the findings of the data sheet; in which happens for 17 times. Therefore, based on the table of findings, two-way/mutual entailment appears in both of the categories of orders of entailment whether background entailment and/or foreground entailment.

The variances of two-way entailment with background order emerged in The Da Vinci Code movie are presented in the following examples section.

The first variance, which is two-way/mutual entailment with background order, is presented in the following datum.

Neveu : I received the crime-scene jpegs at headquarters. And I've deciphered the code. It's a Fibonacci sequence. Capt B. Fache : That's the code Saunière left on the floor.

(Datum 18) Naveu suddenly appeared in the middle of Longdon and Captain B. Fache conversation, and she has deciphered the symbol on Saunière‟s corpse. Naveu says that The symbol is a Fibonacci sequence, and Captain B. Fache adds That's the code Saunière left on the floor. Both sentences paraphrase one another because the second sentence is the explanation of the first sentence which makes the both sentences equivalent. The truth of Saunière left on the floor follows the truth of Fibonacci sequence and vice versa. Hence, both sentences are mutually entailed. Also, both sentences share the same knowledge which is the requirement

of background entailment. As the first sentence is explained on the second one by giving an explanation; contexted clause approach employed. Therefore, it is clear that the datum is considered as one-way entailment which is ordered according to the background context, and is detected by using contexted clause approach.

There is also two-way entailment which is ordered based on the background context that deploys quantifier to construct paraphrase. The example of the datum is given in the following.

Longdon: Some Christians held that Jesus was mortal. Some Christians believed he was divine.

(Datum 36)

The employment of quantifier „some‟ in this datum causes the emergence of paraphrase. From the quantifier „some‟; it can be obtained that if some believe in one thing; the other some must be believe in the other thing, and vice versa. As a result, Some Christians held that Jesus was mortal paraphrases Some Christians believed he was divine, and two-way entailment occurs in Longdon‟s statements in this datum. Furthermore, both sentences share the same knowledge which makes the entailment containing background order. The background order is created because the first sentence is flattened in the second one, which is triggered the researcher to apply contexted clause approach to detect the entailment.

Paraphrase can also be done by employing synonymous words on each sentence. The example of the employment of synonymous words is showed by the following datum.

Longdon: The Priory found out. Somehow they concealed the fact that you were alive. They hid you with the Grand Master himself who raised you as his own.

(Datum 55) Both thickened sentences uttered by Longdon are paraphrasing each other as there are two synonymous words that can be considered as the clue of paraphrase: concealed and hid. Both words are synonymous because both can substitute each other‟s position. As a result, the entailment in both sentences is categorized as two-way/mutual entailment. Therefore, both synonymous words also give a hint that the entailment in the sentences is ordered according to the background. In parallel, concealed and hid also mark that the entailment can be detected using contexted clause approach as the first sentence is flattened in the following sentence.

Besides the previous examples of two-way entailment with background order which detected by contexted clause approach, the application of context matching approach is not found in this variation. The absence of context matching approach is caused by the nonexistence of substitutable words in this variance of entailment. Yet, the employment of context matching approach can be seen in the next variance; which is two-way/mutual entailment with foreground order. The example is given in the following datum.

Bishop Aringarosa: Tonight, The Grail will be DESTROYED. The Priory's few remaining members will be SILENCED.

(Datum 27) A paraphrase can be seen from this datum because the sentences are

The Priory's few remaining members will be silenced. In parallel, if The Priory's few remaining members will be silenced, The Grail will be destroyed. Moreover, The Priory members are the part of The Grail according to the movie. Hence, The Priory is correlated with The Grail, while the word destroyed has a relation with the word silenced. That is why both sentences have a paraphrase relation, and paraphrase is similar to mutual/two-way entailment. Moreover, Bishop Aringarosa stressed the words destroyed and silenced; both words share the same understanding in this context. In addition, as the first sentence is flattened in the second sentence; contexted clause is employed to detect the entailment.

Another example two-way/mutual entailment which with foreground order and detected by context matching approach is found when Longdon was explaining symbol to his students in the classroom.

Longdon: That is his TRIDENT. A symbol of power to millions of the ancients. Now this symbol.

(Datum 2) When Robert Longdon shows a painting of Poseidon holding a trident, he states the trident is a symbol of power. A paraphrase can be seen from this datum as the second sentence is the definition of the first sentence. In other word, the second sentence explains the first sentence. Thus, the truth of A symbol of power to millions of the ancients follows the truth of That is his trident, and vice versa. Therefore, paraphrase is emerged, and two-way entailment occurs. Therefore, Longdon stresses the word trident in order to show that he wants the hearers to pay attention to this word because this word is the most important part of the current discussion. Moreover, the relationship between trident and power

indicates that the entailment of both sentences can be detected by using context matching approach.

Unlike the previous example of two-way/mutual entailment which is ordered by foreground−stressing; the following example is ordered by foreground−clefting.

Naveu: Funny, I don't EVEN like history. I've never seen much good come from looking to the past.

(Datum 30) Naveu tells Longdon that she does not like history because she has never seen much good come from looking to the past. The fact that she has never seen much good come from looking to the past triggers her dislike toward history. Her second statement strengthens her first statement, and vice versa, and it means that both sentences paraphrase one another. Therefore, the addition of the word even in

Naveu‟s first sentence indicates that the order of entailment is foreground which uses clefting to order the entailment. Thus, the approach used is context matching as history is interrelated to past even though history does not mean past.

c. Negative Entailment

According to Murphy (2003: 98), negative entailment is an entailment which is expressed in a negative form. Negative form of a sentence is usually

indicated by adding the word „not‟ as the auxiliary verb. Overall, the arrangement

of negative entailment is similar to the basic rule of entailment; the only different is that at least one of the sentences must be expressed in negative form. In other word, negative entailment is one-way entailment which is constructed by all negative sentences, and/or mixing between positive and negative sentences. The

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Explanation

OE TE NE ME BE FE CC CM

CL ST

order of entailment must be located in the background. Moreover, the entailment in these thickened sentences is one-way because if The Priory’s charge was to reveal the heir, the heir must be hidden. However, if the heir is hidden, The Priory‟s charge was not necessarily to reveal the hair; their charge could also be anything else. So, entailment only happens from one direction.

52. Leigh Teabing: Robert, no words. On your knees. Do it. No, I mean it. Down. Not you. No, my dear, you… You're my MIRACLE, Sophie. You're the guardian of the Grail.

√ √ √ One-way entailment is reflected on the bold sentences

because is Naveu is the guardian of the Grail, she must be a miracle for Teabing. However if she is Taebing’s miracle, she does not necessarily to be the guardian of the Grail. That is how one-way entailment occurs. Teabing stresses the word miracle as he wants to point out that Naveu is the guardian of the Grail which becomes his miracle because Taebing has been looking for the guardian of the Grail in his entire life. So, the order of entailment here can be seen from the stressed word. Furthermore, miracle means the guardian of the Grail for Teabing. The flattening can be seen from this

phenomenon, which is why contexted clause is employed to detect the entailment.

53. Naveu: I have NO idea how. I DON'T know the code. And even if I did, I wouldn't tell you.

√ √ √ Teabing was asking Naveu to tell the code of the cryptex,

and she says I have no idea how which entails her

following sentence I don’t know the code. Both sentences contain entailment as Naveu does not have any idea about the code; both sentences are paraphrase. However, the sentences are presented in negative form, so they indicate negative entailment. Moreover, Naveu stresses the

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CL ST

negative forms from each sentence. It means that those negative form words are really important for Teabing to understand. Moreover, The first sentence is the flattened form of the second one, which is why contexted clause is used to observe the entailment.

54. Naveu: And what I saw my

grandfather doing some RITUAL. I was so frightened.

√ √ √ If Naveu saw her grandfather doing some RITUAL, she

must be so frightened, but if she was so frightened that time; it does not mean that her fear was caused by her father and his ritual. As a result, one-way entailment can be seen as the entailment only happens from one direction. The entailment happens as there is stressing order which formulates the second sentence. The stressing is done by Naveu as she underlines that ritual is really important in the topic of their (Longdon and her) conversation. As Naveu‟s second sentence clarifies her first sentence, flattening happens, and contexted clause approach applied to detect the occurrence of entailment.

55. Longdon: The Priory found out. Somehow they concealed the fact that you were alive. They hid you with the Grand Master himself who raised you as his own.

√ √ √ Both thickened sentences uttered by Longdon are

paraphrasing each other as there are two synonymous words that can be considered as clue: concealed and hid. As a result, the entailment in both sentences is categorized as two-way entailment. Therefore, both synonymous words also give a hint that the entailment in the sentences is ordered according to the background. In parallel, concealed and hid also mark that the entailment can be detected using contexted clause approach. In addition, this approach is employed because the first sentence is

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OE TE NE ME BE FE CC CM

CL ST 56. Longdon: According to all of this,

Princess Sophie, you are the HEIR. The end of the bloodline. You are the last living descendent of Jesus Christ.

√ √ √ Longdon finds out a fact that Naveu is the heir of Jesus

Christ. The end of the bloodline entails you are the HEIR. Here, if Naveu is the end of the bloodline, she must be the heir of Jesus. However, if she is the heir of Jesus, she might be/ might be not the end of the bloodline. According to this explanation, the type of entailment of the sentences is one-way entailment. Furthermore, there is interconnectedness between heir and bloodline. That is why Longdon stressed the word bloodline; it is because he wants to get Naveu awareness in order to deliver his next sentence. In accordance, the words heir and bloodline has a relation in which required by context matching approach to detect the entailment. Both words are related even though both cannot replace one another.

57. Longdon: Okay,

maybe there is

no proof. Maybe the Grail is lost

forever

√ √ √ Two-way entailment can be seen from Longdon‟s utterances as

Maybe there is no proof

paraphrases

Maybe the Grail is lost forever.

Both sentences have

mutual entailment relation as the truth of both

sentences implies one another. In accordance with

the mutual relation of those sentences, the logical

background of the sentences is also identical. That is

why the order of the entailment can be seen from the

background. In addition, because the first sentence is

more explained on the second sentence by flattening; contexted clause approach is employed in detecting the entailment.