13 performing, manipulating, and constructing. Then, the affective domain involves
objectives concerning attitudes, appreciations, values, and all emotions enjoying, conserving, respecting, and so on.
d. Subject Content
It is the element of listing the subject content that supports each objective. It was the outline of the materials to be developed. Subject content comprises the
selection and organization of the specific knowledge, skills, and step of procedures Kemp, 1977. Further Kemp stated that the content must closely
relate to the objectives and to the student‟s needs.
e. Pre-Assessment
It is the part of developing pre- assessments to determine the student‟s
background and present level of knowledge about the topic Kemp, 1977. It is the part of questioning and revealing two things. The first is whether students are
prepared to study the topic or unit. The second is whether students are already competent in some of the stated objectives. Pre-assessment can be done by
prerequisite testing and pretesting. A prerequisite test determines whether students have the appropriate background preparation for the topic. A pretesting is to
determine which of the objectives students may already have achieved. The pre- assessments affect instructional planning. It is important for the elimination,
modification, or additional objectives to the program after the results are analyzed.
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f. TeachingLearning Activities and Resources
Teachinglearning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives are selected Kemp,
1977. Kemp 1977 stated that the strengths and weaknesses of alternative methods and of various materials are identified to select the activities that meet
student characteristics and needs that serve the objectives that have been established.
There are three basic methods of teaching and learning activities explained by Kemp 1977. They are presentation to a group, individualized learning, and
teacher-students interaction. Those methods are used in consideration of time, facilities, and equipment. Then, students‟ characteristics are also taken into
account. Considering the methods of teaching and learning is important to select the activities contained in the teaching materials.
Beside considering the methods, it is important to adjust the activities in the materials with the principles of learning. It is to create effective learning.
According to B. F. Skinner and his colleagues as cited in Kemp, 1977, there are some principles of learning. They are prelearning preparation, motivation,
individual differences, instructional conditions, active participation, practice, and rate of presenting material. There are more principles of learning stated by
Skinner, but those six principles that were used in this research. Prelearning preparation is the acquired former learning to facilitate the structure of total
course. Then, motivation or students‟ attention can be captured when student
perceive some personal value in a topic or learning task. Individual differences
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15 should be considered because students learn at various rates. Next, instructional
conditions also take a role in deciding the activities. Learning will be successful when objectives are clearly stated for students and when learning activities are
carefully sequenced. Then, the content should be organized sequentially from simple to complex. Another learning principle is active participation. It means that
learning must be performed by students and not by the teacher through some kind of transmission. Next principle is practice. Students should be provided by
opportunities for them to use their newly acquired knowledge and skills in many situations. Finally, the rate and amount of material to be learned at any one time or
in any one lesson must be related to the complexity and difficulty or the material in terms of the abilities of the students.
g. Support Services
