SUMMARY CONCLUSION TACKLING MALNUTRITION IN EAST NUSA TENGGARA NTT:

THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 228 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 229 4.3.1.2 Brief history The integration of Tanah Papua into the Republic of Indonesia has been problematic for some Papuans. After the 1949 Round Table Agreement, which officially ended Dutch occupation over the colony, the Indonesian government argued that according to the Round Table Agreement, ‘West Papua’ i.e., all the land west of the country of Papua New Guinea was part of Indonesia. 195 The Dutch disagreed with Indonesia’s position. 196 Numerous bilateral agreements between the two countries failed to produce any agreement. Ultimately in August 1962, the Dutch and Indonesians, under UN supervision, signed the New York Agreement, by which the two countries agreed to transfer the administration of this land from the Netherlands to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority UNTEA. The period for the UNTEA would be from 1 October 1962 to 1 May 1963, followed by Indonesian control, with the agreement that an Act of Free Choice would be held within five years. 197 The relations between Tanah Papua and the central government have long been complex due to a variety of historical causes, which relate back to Tanah Papua then Irian Jaya falling under Indonesian control in the 1960s. The complexity of the relations is manifested in the call for secession by some political actors, most prominently leaders of the Organisasi Papua Merdeka Free Papua Organisation. 198 In 1999, following the end of the Suharto period, President B. J. Habibie implemented decentralisation. Following this, Special Autonomy Otonomi Khusus for Papua was adopted during the administration of Habibie’s successor, President Abdurrahman Wahid, as a step towards accommodating local demands and providing greater control for Tanah Papua over the revenue from natural resources, including up to 80 per cent of the income derived from the province’s extractive industries. 199 The tensions between Tanah Papua and the central government, however, have not simply been a question of rebellion or secessionism, but rather the much more complex issue of justice, human rights, prosperity and economic opportunity. 200 Unequal division of natural resources between central government prior to Special Autonomy, combined with government-sponsored migration transmigration of other Indonesians to Tanah Papua, create a sense of marginalization among Papuans. 201 Many feel that they have become strangers in their own land. 202 This is compounded by poorer education and skills on the part of indigenous Papuans. 203 4.3.1.3 Economic and human development Despite having plenty of natural resources and greater access to resource revenues under Special Autonomy, resources are not distributed equally and do not always result in improved living conditions for the poor. Instead, development is uneven and there are fluctuations in the number of people living in poverty. 204 While Papua has the fourth highest Gross Regional Domestic 195 Chauvel, R. and Bhakti, I. N. 2004 The Papua conflict: Jakarta’s perception and policies, East-West Center: Washington, D.C. 196 Vandenbosch, A. 1976 ‘Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the New Guinea issue’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol.71: 102-118 197 Borchier, C. and Vedi R. H. Eds 2003 Indonesian politics and society, a reader, Routledge Curzon: LondonNew York; Chauvel, R. and Bhakti, I. N. 2004 The Papua conflict 198 Bachtiar, H. W. 1963 ’Sejarah Irian Barat’ in: Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar H. W. Eds Penduduk Irian Barat, PT Penerbitan Universitas: Jakarta 199 Blair, D. C. and David L. P. 2003 Indonesia commission: Peace and progress in Papua, Council on Foreign Relations: Washington, D.C. 200 Bertrand, J. 2007 ‘Papuan and Indonesian nationalisms: Can they be reconciled?’ in: Hedman, E.-L. E. Ed. Conflict, violence and displacement in Indonesia , Cornell Southeast Asia Program: Ithaca, pp32-51 201 Chauvel, R. 2005 Constructing Papuan nationalism: History, ethnicity and adaptation: McGibbon, R. 2004 Plural society in peril; McGibbon, R. 2004 Secessionist challenges in Aceh and Papua: Is special autonomy the solution? East-West Center: Washington, D.C. 202 Ibid. 203 McGibbon, R. 2004 Plural society in peril 204 Halmin, M. Y. 2006 The implementation of Special Autonomy in West Papua, Indonesia: Problems and recommendations. Naval Postgraduate School: Monterey, California; World Bank 2005 Papua public expenditure analysis: Regional finance and service delivery in Indonesia’s most remote region , World Bank: Jakarta; UNDP 2007 Harmonization of human development programme and donors in Papua Province Product GRDP per capita in Indonesia, this has not yet amounted to better access to public services and infrastructure. 205 One third of the population is living below the poverty line. 206 The percentage of poor people in rural areas is almost eight times as high as in urban areas 6 per cent urban versus 47 per cent rural 207 , partly due to geographical distances and lack of access to transportation, which have proven to be a challenge for the rural poor when it comes to enhancing their ability to earn a living. 208 At the district level, there are also huge disparities, with Merauke and Jayapura having the smallest proportions of poor residents 16 per cent and 19 per cent respectively, and Yahukimo and Supiori having the highest both 51 per cent in 2009. 209 The World Bank 2005 reports that local government revenues doubled after the adoption of new policies on decentralisation in 2001, and that they further increased with the enactment of the Special Autonomy Law. In 2003, the province of Papua was reported to have had the second highest per capita level of development spending of all provinces of Indonesia. 210 It is expected that local government revenues will further increase through 2021 211 , providing a considerable period of secure finance during which to plan and achieve local development objectives. The opportunities provided by this apparently high level of productivity are, however, contrasted with considerable challenges to reducing poverty. 212 Papua has high per capita spending on infrastructure relative to other regions in the country. 213 These expenditures cover the transportation sector, as well as water and irrigation. Papua has the third highest infrastructure spending per capita with around IDR 44,000 per person in 2005. 214 This figure is twice as large as the national average of below IDR 20,000 per person. 215 However, the evidence suggests that this high rate of expenditure is not benefiting the ethnic rural Papuans due to the uneven spread of Papuans in geographically vast Papua. 216 Papua, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku share the lowest rankings in terms of access to infrastructure in the sectors of electricity, piped water and roads. Increasing access to piped water should be a priority, as the share of villages with access to piped water is exceptionally low. 217 Low income, access to education and life expectancy together are captured in the human development index HDI. Figure 4.3.2 shows the improving but still low levels for the HDI in Papua. In 2007 the HDI is well below the national average 63.4 in Papua versus 73.4 nationally. Disparity is key when considering this issue, with a high level of inter-district disparity, much of which can be attributed to the ruralurban split discussed earlier see annex 4.3. Among districts, the HDI ranged from 73.8 in Jayapura municipality to only 47.4 in the highland district of Pegunungan Bintang in 2007. Yet, as Figure 4.3.3 demonstrates, even at the district level the HDI is improving slowly over time. Similarly, while the gender development index GDI and the gender empowerment measure GEM are improving see Figure 4.3.2, similar differences to that of the HDI are found among districts see annex 4.3. As discussed in previous sections of this report, poverty and low human development can have adverse affects on the welfare of the poor, especially women and children in poor families. 205 USAID 2009 Papua assessment, USAID: Jakarta; World Bank 2005 Papua public expenditure analysis 206 BPS - Statistics Indonesia 2009 Statistical yearbook 2009 based on the National Socio-Economic Survey SUSENAS 2008, BPS: Jakarta 207 BPS - Statistics Indonesia 2008 Data dan informasi kemiskinan 2008 Buku 2: KabupatenKota, BPS: Jakarta 208 World Bank 2005 Papua public expenditure analysis 209 BPS - Statistics Indonesia 2008 Data dan informasi kemiskinan 2008 Buku 2: KabupatenKota; BPS - Statistics Indonesia 2009 Statistical yearbook 2009, based on the National Socio-Economic Survey 210 World Bank 2005 Papua public expenditure analysis 211 Ibid. 212 UNDP 2004 Indonesia human development report 213 World Bank 2005 Papua public expenditure analysis 214 Ibid. 215 Ibid. 216 Ibid. 217 Ibid.