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attend school or undertake the national exams under such circumstances. The tsunami and the armed conflict left dual legacies of devastating infrastructure damage as well as displacement,
loss of close relatives and, more generally speaking, violence-related trauma. Children in Aceh were often caught up in the middle of gunfire exchanges in schools, in many cases witnessing the
killings of teachers or friends.
354
In all, it is estimated that the prolonged conflict caused US10.7 billion in loss and damages - far more than the 2004 tsunami see below.
355
Finally, countless human rights violations and acts of violence, e.g., killings, rapes, looting, unlawful imprisonmentstrials and evictions, were
perpetrated both by the Indonesian security forces and GAM combatants, leaving a legacy of trauma, fear and distrust in the population.
356
By the early 2000s, the prospects for peace in Aceh were unclear. On one hand, the broader process of decentralisation meant that Aceh was granted Special Autonomy through Law No.
182001. However, the Special Autonomy status proved controversial and was rejected by GAM leaders. Between 2001-2004, negotiations were interspersed with periods of intense violence
between GAM and the security forces that led to heavy losses on both sides. A new uncertain round of negotiation between the protagonists had been initiated in Helsinki when the tsunami of
26 December 2004 struck.
357
Prior to the tsunami, the conflict in Aceh had received relatively little international attention, not least because access to the province was severely constrained. But the magnitude of the
natural disaster brought Aceh to the centre of the world’s attention. Both the devastation and the reconstruction efforts that ensued were unprecedented. Over 132,000 casualties far more
than during the armed conflict were confirmed, but many more have not been accounted for and the total number of people who lost their lives in the disaster and its aftermath is not
known. According to a 2006 World Bank expenditure analysis, the total recovery cost in Aceh and North Sumatera stood at US4.5 billion, 97 per cent of Aceh’s Gross Regional Domestic Product
GRDP.
358
The Office of the United Nations Secretary-General Special Envoy for the Tsunami Recovery reported that the funds pledged for the tsunami recovery by multi- and bilateral donors,
non-government organisations NGOs and the Indonesian government amounted to US6.1 billion.
359
The death and destruction wrought by the tsunami, as well as the highly visible national and international responses to the disaster, assisted in creating a new momentum for peace
negotiations. A memorandum of understanding MOU between the GoI and GAM was signed on 15 August 2005 in Helsinki. The MOU included a clarifying and broadening of Aceh’s Special
Autonomy status, and was implemented through Law No. 112006 on Governing Aceh. The main points of the agreement included broader autonomy in governance see below, the dissolution of
the rebel movement, and the reintegration of combatants into civilian life.
360
354 Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi NAD-Nias 2009 Pendidikan, kesehatan, peran perempuan 355 Ibid., p104
356 MSR 2009 Multi-stakeholder review, p4 357 Barron, P. and Clark, S. 2006 ‘Decentralizing inequality? Center-periphery relations, local governance, and conlict in Aceh’, in Social
Development Papers: Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction . Paper No. 39, World Bank: Jakarta
358 MSR 2009 Multi-stakeholder review, pp103-104 359 Approximately US3.6 billion from multi- and bilateral donors and international financial institutions, US2.5 billion from NGOs and
the International Federation of Red Cross IFRC and US2.75 billion from the GoI. Office of the Secretary-General’s Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery 2005 Tsunami recovery: Taking stock after 12 Months,
United Nations: New York 360 MSR 2009 Multi-stakeholder review, pp3-4
Law No. 112006 on Governing Aceh establishes some key political and fiscal institutional arrangements for Aceh. These include the freedom to set up local political parties, the adoption of
Islamic shariah law and the setting up of a distinctive social and political administrative system. The Special Autonomy status, in conjunction with post-conflict and post-tsunami reconstruction
efforts see Box 4.5.1 below, have put Aceh in something of a unique position in Indonesia. Funds and revenues have become available at an unprecedented level to meet the multiple
reconstruction challenges, all within the rather untried and untested institutional context of decentralisation and Special Autonomy.
Between 1999-2006, the total regional revenues in Aceh, mostly derived from central government transfers, increased more than five times from IDR 2.4 trillion to IDR 11.2 trillion.
361
There are distinct sources of central government transfers, as follows:
1. The shares in oil and gas revenue in Aceh have been set at 55 and 40 per cent, respectively, since 2001 compared to 15 and 30 per cent in other provinces. Although the shares of
revenue have increased, it is worth noting that the depletion of oil and gas resources in Aceh means that overall revenues are decreasing and are set to decrease further in the future. This
has important implications for medium- to long-term development planning in the province. Finally, the Law on Governing Aceh Law No. 112006 has established that 30 per cent of the
oil and gas revenues in Aceh must be allocated to education.
2. Between the years 2008-2023, Aceh receives a Special Autonomy Fund Dana Otsus, or Dana Otonomi Khusus which consists of an additional 2 per cent from the national general
allocation budget fund DAU, Dana Alokasi Umum. This is a temporary transfer, which will reduce to 1 per cent between 2023 and 2028, after which it will be terminated. According to
World Bank estimates, this additional DAU allocation increased Aceh’s revenues from IDR 10.4 trillion in 2006 to more than IDR 14 trillion in 2009.
362
The Dana Otsus is a block grant to be used to finance infrastructure development, including community empowerment, poverty
alleviation, education, health and other social expenditures. 3. Finally, Aceh receives funds from the Special Allocation Fund DAK, Dana Alokasi Khusus for
financing specific expenditures not covered by the general allocation fund formula. The DAK is earmarked for national priorities in programming and is transferred to Aceh Province, which
is then responsible for distributing it to local governments districts and municipalities. Since 2003, DAK funds have covered several sectors such as education, health and infrastructure,
as well as the setting up of facilities for the new local governments that have been created during the decentralisation process. In addition, throughout the rehabilitation period, Aceh
is receiving ‘deconcentration’ funds designated by the central government to address non- routine or recurrent development spending.
363
The flow of funds from the central government to Aceh Province is different from other provinces, where most funds are allocated directly to districts. In Aceh the transfers are generally made to
the provincial government, which is responsible for the administration and district allocation of the funds. Intra-provincial funds allocation is operated through qanun regulations.
364
For instance,
361 World Bank 2006 Aceh public expenditure analysis: Spending for reconstruction and poverty reduction, World Bank: Jakarta 362 Ibid.
363 Law No. 332004 specifies that provinces can request emergency funds from the central government to finance extraordinary and urgent needs, such as natural disasters, which cannot be covered by regional government budget APBD. Although the programme
is implemented by the province and local government, deconcentration funds are not recorded in the provincial and local government budgets. Instead, they are recorded in the national budget APBN.
364 Qanun refers to the regulations that are passed by provincial, municipal or district legislative bodies, such as the provincial House of Representatives DPRA, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Aceh. See Law No. 182001, Article 1.
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THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 271
Qanun No. 22008 stipulates that 40 per cent of the Dana Otsus is to be allocated to the province and 60 per cent allocated to districtmunicipalities.
365
Special Autonomy has led to a dramatic increase in the education budget in Aceh, due in particular to a compulsory allocation to education of 30 per cent of the oil and gas revenue, and a
20 per cent allocation to education of the Special Autonomy funds.
Table 4.4.1: Education budget, Aceh 2002-2009
Source: Aceh Provincial Development Planning Agency BAPPEDA, Budget Implementation Reports 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009
Figure 4.4.2: Summarizes the general flow of funds in Aceh and illustrates how it relates to schools.
Source: Law No. 112006 on Governing Aceh, Qanun No. 42002 and Qanun No. 242008
Year
2002 2003
2004 2005
2006 2007
2008 2009
Amounts IDR
700,000,000,000 700,000,000,000
700,000,000,000 491,000,000,000
480,000,000,000 650,000,000,000
1,364,835,727,340 2,128,157,953,850
Source
TDBHM = oil and gas revenue share TDBHM
TDBHM TDBHM
TDBHM TDBHM
TDBHM + Special Autonomy Funds=OTSUS TDBHM + OTSUS
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Direct Transfer 70 of total
revenue sharing, DAU, and others
Otsus, revenue sharing, DAK,
Income tax, and deconcentration funds
Otsus, Revenue sharing, DAK, and
provincial tax sharing District
Municipality
School PROVINCE
Own Source Revenue PAD
Own Source Revenue PAD
Education 30 of total revenue
sharing
BOS The sudden influx of funds ought to enable Aceh to realise its commitments to improve
livelihoods and social welfare in the region. Yet, the challenges of development, post-conlict and post-disaster reconstruction in Aceh, and investing for a sustainable future, when key sources
of revenue e.g., oil and gas and central government transfers start to decline steeply, are substantial. Poor accountability and poor access to justice remain prevalent in Aceh.
366
As is often the case, the reintegration of ex-combatants is fraught with tensions and has been problematic in
some communities, especially when ex-combatants have found it difficult to reintegrate on equal terms with other community members. Elsewhere, disputes over land ownership, usage and
inheritance, notably for returnees, are numerous and ongoing.
367
The conflict has also left a deep legacy of mistrust towards the central government, but within Aceh distrust towards the local
levels of government also remains high.
368
In addition, past patterns of social tensions leading to sudden outbursts of violence are still dangerously close to the surface and have not yet been
replaced by peaceful approaches to conflict resolution.
Box 4.4.1: Tsunami and post-conflict recovery
According to the Multi-Stakeholder Review MSR, 2009, 38 donors have supported 140 projects implemented by 89 organisations 52 per cent of which were local NGOs for post-
conflict reconstruction, and there are over 563 different projects implemented for post- tsunami reconstruction p52. Assistance for the post-tsunami reconstruction has dwarfed
that of post-conflict reconstruction and peace building assistance by at least 15 times, i.e., US5.9 billion compared to US365 million, according to some estimates p69. Most of
the tsunami related programmes made a deliberate effort to avoid conflict affected groups and regions, but the recent Multi-Stakeholder Review MSR report estimates that around
US529.5 million of tsunami assistance indirectly assisted post-conflict areas, more than the original budget allocated to post-conflict reconstruction p69. Unavoidably with interventions
of this magnitude, some negative or unforeseen consequences are bound to occur. In Aceh, the MSR reports that the delivery of assistance post-tsunami and post-conflict has had “the
unfortunate effect of reinforcing an entitlement mentality among ex-combatants, conflict victims and communities in Aceh [which] may hamper the transition from relief to more
broad-based development initiatives” p103.
Source: Multi-Stakeholder Review 2009
4.4.2 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC OVERVIEW
4.4.2.1 Poverty and human development Data collection during the conflict years was haphazard, often partial and inconsistent.
Establishing a reliable picture of social and economic conditions in Aceh is therefore not always possible. Where data exist, however, it is evident that both the conflict and the tsunami impacted
negatively on the welfare and well-being of the population in Aceh. As noted above, poverty
365 The transfers are calculated on the basis of a formula that takes into consideration a basic allocation and a fiscal gap. The basic allocation is based on civil servants’ salary expenditure and the fiscal gap is obtained from the difference between the fiscal needs -
including population, regional area, human development index HDI, and construction price index IKK, indeks kemahalan konstruksi - and the fiscal capacity of each region including own-source revenue and regional percentage of revenue-sharing.
366 UNDP n.d. Access to justice in Aceh: Making the transition to sustainable peace and development in Aceh, UNDP: Jakarta, available at: http:www.undp.or.idpubsdocsAccess20to20Justice.pdf Last accessed 10 November 2010
367 Ibid. 368 MSR 2009 Multi-stakeholder review, pxix
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THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 273
increased during the conflict years in Aceh whilst reducing elsewhere in Indonesia. In the early 2000s, when the conflict was acute and access to the region was severely limited including for
humanitarian assistance programmes, the proportion of households living below the poverty line doubled from 14.75 per cent in 1999 to 29.83 per cent in 2002 Figure 4.4.3. However, there
has been some improvement since the end of the conflict and the deployment of post-tsunami reconstruction efforts. According to the Multi-Stakeholder Review MSR, 2009, the economic
recovery and, in particular, the resumption of trade and agriculture, have had a positive impact on almost every segment of the population. Key benefits from the resumption of economic activities
and economic recovery include economic growth, improved employment levels and poverty reduction.
369
The proportion of the population living below the poverty line declined from 29.83 per cent in 2002 to 21.8 per cent in 2008. However, poverty in Aceh remains both above 1999
levels and significantly higher than in the rest of Indonesia, with a national level of 14.15 per cent in 2008 Figure 4.4.4. Furthermore, poverty reduction has been attributed to economic growth,
which in turn is linked to the influx of post-tsunami aid, which will inevitably start to dwindle in the coming years, making it uncertain whether poverty reduction is sustainable over the long run
in Aceh.
370
Figure 4.4.3: Percentage of population below the poverty line, Indonesia and Aceh 1999-2009
371
Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, Statistical Year-Book of Indonesia, 2000-2009 based on National Socio-Economic Survey
Figures 4.4.4 and 4.4.5 provide further insights into the nature of poverty and disparities in Aceh. Figure 4.4.4 indicates that there are significant disparities between districts and municipalities in
Aceh, which in turn reflect the prominence of rural poverty in the province: 10 of the 18 districts register poverty levels above the provincial average and three of Aceh’s five municipalities
register the lowest percentage of population living in poverty in the whole of the province. This general trend is confirmed in Figure 4.4.5, which identifies the salience of the ruralurban divide in
Aceh as a key source of disparities. The population below the poverty line is significantly higher in rural than in urban areas, and has remained consistently so since 1999. The data in Figure
4.4.5 suggest that the rural population was deeply affected by the conflict, with poverty levels increasing from 16.3 per cent in 1999 to 33.1 per cent in 2002 and the differential between urban
and rural poverty increasing from 6.15-13 per cent during the same period. Addressing rural poverty and ruralurban disparities remain key development goals: the majority of the population
lives in rural areas and more than half of the workforce is currently employed in the rural sector
369 MSR 2009 Multi-stakeholder review, pxix 370 Ibid.
371 There are data missing in Figure 4.4.2 due to incomplete data collection in 2000, 2001, 2005 and 2006
i.e., isheries, agriculture and small enterprise. However, the rural sectors of the economy remain underdeveloped and highly associated with low income, the expected depletion of oil and
gas production in the short- to medium-term renders the improvement of rural livelihoods even more of a priority.
372
On one hand, the cessation of the conflict and the post-tsunami intervention have not reduced poverty to pre-2000 levels in urban or in rural settings. On the other hand, somewhat
encouragingly, the disparities are no longer increasing. Using 2002 and 2009 as benchmarks, the reduction of poverty in rural areas has been marginally faster than in urban areas reductions of
approximately 26 per cent in rural areas compared to 23 per cent in urban areas.
Figure 4.4.4 and 4.4.5: Percentage of population below the poverty line by area 1999-2009 and by district 2008, Aceh
Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, Statistical Year-Book of Indonesia, based on National Socio-Economic Surveys 2000-2009
373
Prior to the 2004 tsunami, Aceh had an above average human development index HDI, standing at 65.30 compared to a national average of 64.30 in 1999. But the province HDI has been
consistently slightly below the Indonesian average since 2004 - the HDI in 2007 stood at 70.59 nationally compared to 70.4 in Aceh see Section 2. Although the general trend since 1999 has
been towards continual improvement of the HDI, Aceh still faces important challenges in terms of tackling prominent HDI disparities across districts. In 2007, there was still almost a 10-point
difference between the best performer urban Banda Aceh; 76.74 and the worst performer rural Gayo Luwes, 67.17, and 13 of Aceh’s 23 districts and municipalities recorded an HDI below the
provincial average.
372 World Bank 2006 Aceh public expenditure 373 There are data missing in Figure 4.4.5 due to incomplete data collection in 2000, 2001, 2005 and 2006
Kota Banda Aceh 9.56
2009 24.37
15.44 26.30
16.67 29.87
18.68
32.66 33.63
19.47 33.06
20.09
16.30 10.15
0.00 10.00
20.00 30.00
40.00 17.58
2008 2007
2006 2005
2004 2003
2002 2001
2000 1999
15.87 17.97
18.51 19.40
21.52 22.29
23.27 23.27
23.36 23.42
23.55 23.86
24.05 25.72
26.45 26.57
27.56 28.11
28.11 28.99
29.21 29.96
30.26 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
Kota Lhoksummawe Kota Langsa
Kab. Aceh Tenggara Kab. Aceh Selatan
Kab. Aceh Besar Kab. Aceh Tamilang
Kab. Bireuen Kab. Aceh Singkil
Kab. Aceh Tengah Kab. Aceh Jaya
Kab. Aceh Timur Kab. Aceh Utara
Kab. Nagan Raya Kab. Pidie
Kab. Subulusalam Kab. Bener Meriah
Kab. Aceh Barat Kab. Pidie jaya
Kab. Aceh Sabang Kab. Aceh Simeulue
Kab. Gayo Lues Kab. Aceh Barat Daya
Nanggroe Aceh D
Per cent Per cent
Rural Urban
1999 0.00
5.00 10.00
15.00 20.00
25.00 30.00
35.00
2000 2001
2002 2003
2004 Year
2005 2006
2007 2008
2009 23.43
18.95 14.75
29.83 29.76
28.47 18.40
18.20 17.42
16.66 15.97
17.75 16.58
23.53 26.65
15.42 21.80
14.15
Indonesia Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam
Per cent
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THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 275
Elsewhere, as shown in Figure 4.4.6, two gender-based human development indicators lag signiicantly behind the HDI. The gender development index GDI dipped in the middle of the
decade and only very slightly increased from 62.1 to 63.9 between 2002 and 2007. More worrying still, the gender empowerment measure GEM declined sharply from an all-time high of 55.5
in 2002 to 42.1 in 2004 and stood at 50.3 in 2007. This indicates that gender based inequality in human development still persists in terms of income, human rights, political freedoms and
political participation. Whilst women remain under-represented in political and decision-making positions, a number of initiatives and regulations have been established to strengthen the
political participation of women, including the qanun on local political parties, which requires that 30 per cent of candidates of political parties be women.
374
Judging by the 2009 election results, the impact of quotas on the formal political participation and representation of women
in Aceh is not immediately obvious.
375
However, away from formal arenas of power, some international development agency workers are reporting that the deployment of reconstruction
and rehabilitation programmes in post-conflict and post-tsunami Aceh is favouring female participation in public meetings and village meetings, which women rarely attended prior to the
tsunami.
376
This is potentially an important development, which remains to be institutionalised, and it is important too to ensure that women’s participation is equally fostered across all
districts, including those that are not beneficiaries of post-conflict or post-tsunami rehabilitation programmes.
Figure 4.4.6: Human development indicators, Aceh 1999-2007
Source: BPS-BAPPENAS-UNDP, Indonesia Human Development Report 2004 data 1999 and 2002; BPS-The Ministry of Women’s Empowerment, Gender Based Human Development 2005 and 2006
4.4.2.2 Situation of children: Health, nutrition, water and sanitation With the exception of the IMR, most indicators relating to child survival, health and nutrition
indicate that Aceh is performing worse than or similar to national averages. One of the reasons the IMR is particularly low at 25 per 1,000 live births, is that there is a high level of skilled
birth attendance 72.5 per cent, similar to the national average of 73 per cent - see Section 3.1. Ruralurban divides are key to explaining Aceh’s other health indicators, such as the under-five
mortality rate currently at 45 per 1,000 live births, similar to the national average, see annex 4.4. On one hand, there is a persistent lack of health-care services in rural areas. In addition,
low living standards in rural areas continue to induce health workers to move from rural to
30.0 1999
2002 2004
2005
Year
2006 2007
35.0 40.0
45.0 50.0
55.0 60.0
65.0 70.0
75.0
Index
52.4 50.0
65.3
55.5 62.1
66.0
42.1 59.3
68.7
46.5 59.6
69.0
49.7 62.4
69.4
50.3 63.9
70.4
HDI GDI
GEM
374 United Nations Development Fund for Women UNIFEM 2010 Women’s political participation, available at: http:www.unifem- eseasia.orgGovernanceWomen_Political_Participation.html Last accessed 2 November 2010
375 In the 2009 general elections, from a total 652 seats available, only 41 women were elected, 37 in the District Representative Council and four in the Provincial Representative Council. UNIFEM 2010 Increasing the political participation of women in Aceh, available at:
www.unifem.ipdfSummaryReportWPP_FinlandNC_Final.pdf Last accessed 2 November 2010 376 Interview with staff of an international development agency who requested anonymity, Banda Aceh 7 March 2010
urban areas, while health workers who fled from rural conflict areas to the relative safety of urban settings have little incentive to return to their rural postings.
377
As more than 70 per cent of Aceh’s population lives in rural areas the low access to quality health care in rural areas has
a detrimental impact on the health status of children. Data from the 2007 IDHS show that the health status of children in Aceh is among the worst in Indonesia. The proportion of children
fully immunized against all basic antigens is the lowest among all of Indonesia’s provinces after Papua, and the percentage is half of national average 23.7 per cent versus 58.6 per cent.
378
Meanwhile, Aceh is among the provinces with the highest prevalence of severe and moderate underweight 10.7 per cent of children in Aceh versus 5.4 per cent nationally, stunting 28.1 per
cent in Aceh versus 18.8 per cent nationally and wasting 9.2 per cent in Aceh versus 6.2 per cent nationally.
379
The availability of clean water and safe sanitation is critical for improving child survival and improving the health status of children, but only 31.49 per cent of rural households in Aceh had
access to clean water compared to 65.33 per cent in urban areas in 2008. Moreover, only 31.23 per cent of rural households had sustainable access to adequate sanitation facilities compared
to 74.49 per cent of households in urban areas in 2008.
380
The tsunami badly compromised access to clean water and sanitation. A large number of wells were contaminated in the wake of
the disaster. The construction or reconstruction of clean water facilities was a key priority in the tsunami-affected districts, but it is an area where progress has been slow and targets have not
been met.
381
4.4.3 EDUCATION
4.4.3.1 Education overview: Access and efficiency The data on education in Aceh in the 2000s are often lacking and incomplete. As signalled in
Section 3, there are a number of issues with the collection of data on education throughout Indonesia, but in Aceh, both the conflict and the tsunami badly disrupted data collection,
especially in rural conflict areas. Nonetheless, the available data and information on education indicate a mixed panorama of some achievements notably in enrolments and ongoing
inequalities and failings in terms of efficiency and quality of education.
As seen in the national overview on education in Section 3, achieving universal basic education primary and junior secondary school is a key goal of the GoI and this is the area where most
achievements have been realised. Early childhood education is recognised as important in Indonesia, but it is an area of far fewer achievements when compared to basic education. The
situation in Aceh strongly echoes this state of affairs. As with national level data, information about early childhood education is sparse but Figure 4.4.7 indicates that Aceh lags far behind the
Indonesian national average, which stood at 12.44 in 2007 see Section 3. However the general trend in Aceh seems to be in keeping with the rest of Indonesia, where attendance rates for 4- to
6-year-olds have been falling during the 2000s. As with national data, further research is needed to identify and ultimately address the causes of this general decline.
377 World Bank 2006 Aceh public expenditure 378 BPS - Statistics Indonesia and Macro International 2008 Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey IDHS 2007, BPS - Statistics and
Macro International: Calverton, Maryland 379 Ministry of Health 2008 Report on the results of the National Basic Health Research Riskesdas 2007, National Institute of Health
Research and Development: Jakarta 380 Based on the National Socio-Economic Survey SUSENAS, processed by BPS - Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta, 2009. Note: clean water
includes filtered water, piped and non-piped water pumps, protected wells and springs which are more than 10 meters away from excreta disposal sites
381 Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi NAD-Nias 2009 Pendidikan, kesehatan, peran perempuan
