JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION

THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 114 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 115 The data necessary to construct a disparity index were not available for the junior secondary school attendance rate. However, there is suficient data to construct an index of disparity ID for the junior secondary school gross attendance rate. The gross attendance is a more approximate indicator of enrolment figures but is used here for the insight it provides in terms of the trend of disparities. Figure 3.4.14 shows greater fluctuations of the gross rates than the net attendance rate, which was steadily rising. Whilst there was an overall decrease from 10.13 to 8.01 per cent between 2000 and 2008, the ID seems to have reached a plateau around the 8 per cent mark. It is noteworthy that the ID for the junior secondary school gross rate is significantly higher than that of the net primary school attendance rate 8.01 per cent in 2008 and 1.46 per cent, respectively reflecting that addressing provincial inequalities remains a priority if the junior secondary school attendance rate is to further improve. Figure 3.4.14: Trend over time and index of provincial disparity of gross attendance rates for junior secondary school, Indonesia 2000-2008 214 Source: Gajah Mada University, based on the National Socio-Economic Surveys 2000-2008 3.4.4.1 Early school leaving dropout and completion rates According to data released by the Ministry of National Education in 2009, the completion rate for junior secondary school is high and has shown remarkable improvement between 2000-2008, increasing from 93.79 per cent to 98.17 per cent. 215 Once again, the BOS programme is identified as having played a key role in supporting this increase. This is attributed to improvements in education quality as outlined in government EFA targets, and a range of policy initiatives that have aimed to increase community participation in schools and school-based management, as well as the release of school-based management regulations that have promoted governance reforms at school level, and greater accountability to communities and students. Many of these initiatives have been supported by large amounts of international donor assistance. Furthermore, as the Cannon and Arlianti 2007 study highlighted, the commitments to improve completion rates and achieve universal basic education, as well as to minimise early school leaving, are set out in the National Strategic Plan for Education the Education Renstra and include: • Eliminate cost barriers by providing operational aid to schools the BOS programme • Establish ‘one roof basic junior high school’ for isolated areas • Expand access via the non-formal system, through NGOs and open junior high schools • Integrate inclusive education for children with special needs • Integrate ‘global issues’ such as gender, education for speciic services, in conlict and border areas, etc., into programmes • Advocate and educate in communities concerning the importance of education, ensuring attendance and eliminating early school leaving • Make use of technology for distance learning as an alternative facility in isolated regions, regions facing transportation obstacles, and regions that are sparsely populated The authors note that particular achievements have been made through the implementation of the BOS programme and the establishment of ‘one-roof’ schools, which are considered important strategies that do assist in improving participation by addressing obstacles to participation especially by poor children and children in remote communities. Although the completion rate at the junior secondary school level is high, overall it must be noted that the transition to senior secondary school is disappointing: over a third of the children who complete junior secondary school 36 per cent fail to enrol at senior secondary school. 216 When this is combined with the number of early school leavers from primary and junior secondary school, nearly half of students never complete senior secondary school. The rate of early school leaving at the junior secondary level, whilst remaining relatively low 3.94 per cent in 200607, is a source of some concern, since it is substantially higher than that for primary school 1.81 in 200607. Also, in sharp contrast to the primary school dropout rate, which peaked in the mid-2000s and has consistently improved since, the junior secondary school dropout rate after reaching an all time low of 1.97 per cent in the mid 2000s has steadily climbed since, reaching 3.94 per cent in the 200607 academic year. 217 The provincial breakdown of the school dropout rate shows very marked regional disparities; the best performer has a dropout rate below 1 per cent and the worst was 18 per cent. Fourteen of the 33 provinces perform better than the national average but the majority of provinces 19, lag behind the national average, four of which have a dropout rate above 10 per cent Gorontalo, West Maluku, West Sulawesi and Central Kalimantan, mainly in eastern Indonesia. Figure 3.4.15: Trend of early school leaving dropout rate for junior secondary school, Indonesia 199900-200607 Source: Ministry of National Education, data for 199900-200607 academic years available at: www.depdiknas. go.idstatistik, accessed 1 July 2009 214 The index of disparity ID is defined as the average of the absolute differences between rates for specific groups within a population and the overall population rate, divided by the rate for the overall population and expressed as a percentage. ID = ∑ |r 1-n – R| n R 100, r = group rate, R = total population rate. Pearcy, Jeffrey N. and Kenneth G. Keppel 2002, A summary measure of health disparity. 215 Ministry of National Education 2009, Statistics of National Education, available at: www.depdiknas.go.id Last accessed 10 October 2010 216 Ministry of National Education 2009 Statistics of National Education, available at: www.depdiknas.go.id Last accessed 10 October 2010 217 Ibid. Pe rcent Per cent Year 2000 GER Junior Secondary School Index of disparity 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 76.00 77.62 78.10 79.81 81.09 82.24 82.09 81.87 82.03 81.08 8.01 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 8.47 7.76 8.79 8.66 9.86 12.15 11.55 10.13 77.00 78.00 79.00 80.00 81.00 82.00 83.00 84.00 Per cent Academic Calender 1999-2000 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 4.39 3.50 2.83 1.97 2.88 3.94 2000-2001 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 116 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 117 Figure 3.4.16: Early school leaving dropout rate by province, Indonesia 200607 Source: Ministry of National Education, data for 200607 academic year available at: www.depdiknas.go.idstatistik, accessed 1 July 2009

3.4.5 SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION

It is also important to briefly examine the data on senior secondary school attendance, as the GoI aims to increase the quality and coverage of senior secondary education in the 2010-2014 development period. The net attendance rate of senior secondary schools, according to data from the 2008 National Socio-Economic Survey, is 44.75 per cent, with similar rates for males and females 44.98 and 44.51 per cent, respectively. This has improved since the 2000 National Socio- Economic Survey, when the net attendance rate was 39.8 per cent. Gross rates were 57.87 per cent for males and 56.95 per cent for females in 2008 in the same data sets. However, provincial disparities do remain other data breakdowns are unavailable, and the worst performers have rates just under 35 per cent, including West Sulawesi, and East Nusa Tenggara. This is compared with rates just above 55 per cent in North Sulawesi, Yogyakarta, Bali and Maluku, with Aceh having the highest rate at 62.02 per cent, which is no doubt due to the post-tsunami education drive in the province.

3.4.6 YOUTH AND ADULT LITERACY

The final set of data regarding education that we consider in this section focuses on a basic outcome of the education process: youth and adult literacy. The youth literacy rate referring to those aged 15-24 years is high and has ranged between 98-99 per cent over the past 10 years Figure 3.4.17. The breakdown of the data at provincial level provides a picture showing some notable contrasts. On the one hand, a large number of provinces are performing well and 20 of the 33 Indonesian provinces have youth literacy rates above 98 per cent Figure 3.4.18. Amongst the disadvantaged provinces, 13 provinces have youth literacy rates below the national average, although most have rates above 90 per cent. Once again Papua stands out with a low youth literacy rate of 86.21 per cent see the Figure 3.4.18 below. Figure 3.4.17: Trend of youth literacy rate 15-24 years, Indonesia 2000-2007 Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, based on the National Socio-Economic Surveys 2000-2007 Figure 3.4.18: Youth literacy rate 15-24 years by province, Indonesia 2007 Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, based on the National Socio-Economic Survey 2007 Standing at over 92 per cent in 2008, the overall old adult literacy rate for ages 10+ years not presented here is high and has increased slowly but steadily throughout the 2000s. 218 The breakdown of the data at provincial level provides a contrasted picture. On one hand, a large number of provinces are performing well and 23 of the 33 Indonesian provinces have adult literacy rates above 90 per cent and 27 of the provinces have literacy rates no less than 10 per cent below that of the best performer North Sulawesi with 99.12 per cent. 219 Amongst the disadvantaged provinces, ten provinces have adult literacy rates that fail to reach 90 per cent and once again Papua stands out with an adult literacy rate that falls short of 73 per cent. 220 The data on adult literacy rates for those aged 10 years and above age 10+ shows similar patterns to that for those aged 15+ years, but an encouraging sign is that the provincial data show signs of improvement, particularly for those aged 10+, hopefully indicating that the continuing expansion of basic education throughout the country is bearing fruit. 221 In the case of the age 10+ adult literacy rates, 25 provinces have adult literacy rates above 90 per cent, with just 8 provinces having rates less than 90 per cent. 222 However, again Papua stands out badly with a very slightly improved but nonetheless worrisome adult literacy rate not quite reaching 75 per cent. 223 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 East Nusa T enggar a Bengkul u W est Kalimantan Nanggroe Aceh North Sulawesi Central Sulawesi Bali Riau South Kalimantan South Sulawesi North Sumatra East Kalimantan Indonesi a Banten Papua W est Sumatra Southeast Sulawesi Lampung South Sumatra W est Java Jambi Central Java East Java Riau Islands W est Papua D.I. Y ogyakarta D.K.I Jakarta Gorontal o North Maluku W est Sulawesi Central Kalimantan Bangka Belitung Maluku W est Nusa T enggar a 18. 3 8.2 6.4 3.9 3.5 2.5 0.8 Per cent 97.80 2000 98.44 98.23 98.66 98.55 98.71 98.74 98.76 98.84 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 98.00 98.20 98.40 98.60 98.80 99.00 Percentage 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 95.00 100.00 105.00 Papua W est Papua W est Sulawesi East Nusa T enggar a South Sulawesi W est Nusa T enggar a Gorontal o Southeast Sulawesi W est Kalimantan Bangka Belitung Bali Central Sulawesi North Maluku Indonesi a Bengkul u East Java Maluku Nanggroe Aceh Riau Islands South Kalimantan Jambi North Sumatra W est Sumatra East Kallimantan South Sumatra Central Java North Sulawesi Central Kalimantan Riau Banten W est Java Lampung D.I. Y ogyakarta D.K.I Jakarta 86. 2 92. 4 95. 9 96. 98. 8 99. 99. 3 99. 7 99. 8 218 BPS - Statistics Indonesia 2009 National Socio-Economic Survey 2008 219 Ibid. 220 Ibid. 221 Ibid. 222 Ibid. 223 Ibid. THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 118 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 119 Given that youth literacy rates are high in most cases, and adult literacy age 10+ rates are improving, it is also important to examine the gender and urbanrural breakdowns for adult literacy. Figures 3.4.19 and 3.4.20 provide additional information on the existence and dimensions of disparities in adult literacy. Whilst the data on attendance rates in basic education showed either parity or a relative advantage for females, the adult literacy figures show female to be at a distinctive disadvantage. Gender disparities are diminishing in the trend for adult literacy 15+ years since they decreased from an 8.66 per cent difference in 2000 down to a 6.28 per cent difference in 2008. In addition the data amongst those aged 10+ years are only marginally better, with a disparity of 7.59 per cent in favour of males in 2000 decreasing to 5.78 per cent in 2007 see Figure 3.4.19, below. Furthermore, as with attendance rate data, urban areas have much better adult literacy rates than rural areas, but whereas the urban adult literacy rates have remained stable between 2000 and 2008 around the 95 per cent mark, the adult literacy rates in rural areas have improved from just over 84 per cent to 89 per cent in 2008, decreasing the gap between urban and rural areas from 9.66 per cent in 2000 to 6.4 per cent by 2008. Figure 3.4.19: Adult literacy rate age 10+ years by sex, Indonesia 2000-2007 Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, based on the National Socio-Economic Survey 2000-2007 Figure 3.4.20: Adult literacy rate age 15+ years by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 Source: BPS - Statistics Indonesia, Welfare Indicators, based on the National Socio-Economic Surveys 2000-2008 3.4.7 WEAK DATA AND MONITORING: INFORMAL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND THE PROVISION OF STATE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES FOR DISABLED CHILDREN It is important to highlight how very little data there is on disabled children and the challenges they face in accessing education, particularly state-run education. Box 3.4.1 below outlines the story of a resilient disabled child named Slamet, who is one of those few fortunate enough to have a place in a disabled school run by an NGO that is also able to provide him with access to health care. In order to attend this school, he has to live several hundred kilometres away from his parents. However, it is evident that despite fairly informal, low-paid employment, Slamet’s parents have prioritised schooling for their children; his sister finished senior high school, which, given the discussion in the previous section, is less likely in poor families like Slamet’s. Living in a special institution and with the support of the foundation, Slamet is able to access the health care he needs, although - as later discussion in the section on child protection points out - there is very little monitoring or accreditation of such alternative education and care institutions. As Slamet himself points out, there is limited support in mainstream education for disabled children. All Slamet wants is his independence, and he has identified a number of forms of support that the government might provide to assist the disabled in terms of providing disabled-friendly buildings, public transport and better provisions for disabled children in mainstream schools. As is discussed later in Section 4, vulnerable children such as Slamet, despite extremely challenging circumstances in his case a debilitating disease, tend to be not only aware of the support they need, but they have extraordinary coping mechanisms and strategies to approach and solve their problems. Box 3.4.1: Searching for independence despite disability Slamet is a 15-year-old disabled child. His sister is 20 years old and has inished senior high school. His dad has a mobile street stall from which he sells meatball soup bakso keliling and his mum sells traditional medicines and remedies jamu gendong in West Java. Slamet lost the ability to use both legs and hands when he was a young child and he is bow-legged. He has been having treatment since 1996 for the disease that resulted in his disability. He recently had surgery to straighten his legs. However, Slamet says that this seems not to have helped and he needs a wheelchair. Fortunately, Slamet has been studying at a special non-government school for disabled, blind and deaf children in Solo city, called the Disabled Child Foundation YPAC, Yayasan Pembinaan Anak Cacat. Slamet lives in the school dormitory, which means he can also access health care treatment nearby. This, he says, would not be possible if he remained with his family, whom he only sees in the holidays. Although he is a disabled, Slamet values his independence and tries to live as independently as possible, but this is difficult as he can’t put his clothes on by himself, so his friends help him get dressed. He can’t use public transport so he has to rely on people to ferry him around. As he sees it, the only way to get his independence is to recover from the disease. Slamet says that when he was a small kid, he was a naughty boy who behaved badly, never obeyed the rules, and was undisciplined. Sometimes his parents would smack him on the bottom if he was naughty. However, as he sees it, the main punishment he received was that his parents would treat him as a ‘normal child’ non-disabled child when he was naughty and they made him do things for himself. For him, however, being treated as a normal child “made him feel good and confident,” and it upset him that his parents considered this to be punishment. Slamet thinks that if he makes a mistake his parents should be gentle with him and inform him of the difference between right and wrong. Slamet says when he was younger, he used to get upset easily, but now he is far happier and more adaptable. He doesn’t like it when people look at him as though he is abnormal. Once he was even followed by someone, which made him feel uncomfortable, desperately 80.00 86.1 93.7 93.1 85.5 87.3 86.1 94.2 94.7 88.3 94.9 88.9 95.1 89.7 89.9 Male Female 95.7 87.7 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year 2005 2006 2007 82.00 84.00 86.00 88.00 90.00 92.00 94.00 96.00 98.00 Per cent 75.00 94.0 93.3 94.1 94.5 94.6 95.1 95.3 84.4 83.6 85.7 86.2 87.0 87.5 88.4 95.7 88.8 95.4 89.0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Rural Urban 80.00 85.00 90.00 95.00 100.00 Year Per cent THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 120 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN INDONESIA 2000-2010 121 224 Japan International Cooperation Agency JICA Planning and Evaluation Department 2002 Country profile on disability: Republic of Indonesia , available at: http:siteresources.worldbank.orgDISABILITYResourcesRegionsEast-Asia-PaciicJICA_Indonesia.pdf Last accessed 15 October 2010 225 Ibid. 226 UNESCO 2005 Education for all: The quality imperative unhappy and annoyed. So he reprimanded the person. It makes him unhappy to be labeled as a disabled child and he dislikes being pitied. On one occasion, he was so disappointed with one friend that he punched his friend. He regretted it when his friend was wounded and bleeding - he knew he was wrong and tried to help his friend get cleaned up. Slamet is confident in making friends and has friends inside and outside the dormitory, and he likes having non-disabled friends, he says. He sometimes invites these friends to come to the dormitory to encourage his disabled friends to be more self-confident and feel equal with other non-disabled children. Slamet thinks it would be hard for children with disabilities to study at mainstream schools, but he hopes that disabled children will be not only be accepted in special schools SLB, Sekolah Luar Biasa but also in mainstream school, as he thinks that disabled children will get more experience in mainstream schools. However, according to Slamet not all schools will accept disabled children. Slamet says: “The government is not paying attention to the disabled. There are some schools that accept disabled children and some that don’t. What does it mean? If it is possible, schools should give the same access to the disabled as non-disabled children. So the buildings and the construction too [should be accessible to disable students]. I’ve suggested this to the City Mayor… Transportation [should be] accessible to disabled children…motorcyclists should not use the pedestrian lanes, and public facilities should not only have staircases.” Source: Based on an oral history provided by Slamet over several 90-minute sessions. His name has been changed to protect his identity. A 2002 JICA report 224 has highlighted that while there are special schools for people with disabilities, those who live in remote areas have limited access to these educational facilities, particularly outside of Java. While the same report did indicate there has been a trend towards including and integrating children with disabilities into the nine-year compulsory education curriculum 225 , in the absence of data and monitoring of the facilities for disabled children over time, it is difficult to ascertain the extent to which schools can accommodate disabled children.

3.4.8 POLICY CHALLENGES: QUALITY, RELEVANCE AND COMPETITIVENESS IN THE DECENTRALISED CONTEXT

On the whole, access to basic education has markedly improved in Indonesia over the past decade and the increasing rate of adult literacy suggests that it is delivering some key benefits to large sectors of the population. However, increasing access and increasing the number of pupils is of limited benefits if the education imparted is of poor or dubious quality. 226 Quality of education is a notoriously elusive concept; what it consists of, how it can be delivered and how it can be monitored are hotly debated in the specialist literature. 227 In a 2000 paper, the UNICEF approach to quality of education proposed the following five dimensions of quality: learners, environments, content, processes and outcomes, founded on ‘the rights of the whole child, and all children, to survival, protection, development and participation’. 228 Some of these very disparate dimensions are not easily quantifiable notably, those that focus on learners and assisting cognitive development. Elsewhere, there are debates about how educational outcomes may be best measured and whether data about exam scores constitute an appropriate indicator. Even in this area, however, data can be hard to find. The 2000 SITAN stated that there is considerable evidence of poor learning achievements in Indonesia, but that the paucity of data and limited indicators rendered monitoring and analysis difficult. 229 Whilst the issue of poor learning achievements has gained prominence in Indonesia, data deficits have not been wholly addressed. Thus, a national system of assessment based on benchmark indicators basic literacy and numeracy has still not been implemented. 230 However, there are several broad areas relating to the quality of education that have been identified by the GoI, including: learning achievement; the quality of teachers; and the need to improve the structure, responsiveness and the coherence of the educational system RPJMN 2010- 2014. As noted above, poor learning achievements have repeatedly been reported in Indonesia. For instance, in 2003 Indonesia ranked 34 out of 45 countries in the Trends in International Mathematics Science Study TIMSS and ranked last out of 40 countries in both mathematics and language in the Program for International Student Assessment. 231 At the national level, the limited data available indicate that average national exam scores have improved very slightly from 6 to 7 between 2004-2008, making progress towards RJPMN 2010-2014 targets. One issue central to the quality of education is the quality and qualifications of teachers. In a policy brief on education quality published in 2005, the World Bank identified a number of issues regarding teachers and the teaching profession. 232 In the brief, the Word Bank underlines a general lack of qualifications amongst teachers, shortcomings in teacher training and accreditation, poor allocationdeployment strategies i.e., some areas are overstaffed whilst there are acute shortages in others and poor career path shortcomings in the systems of promotions and appointment, and poor attention to career development. 233 Elsewhere, a USAID reports underlined the ongoing predominance of antiquated teaching methods, notably through teacher-centred approaches in the classroom. 234 Similar to the case of health and nutrition discussed in an earlier section of this SITAN, the Ministry of National Education is also subject to the Minimum Service Standards SPM that have been issued under the Ministry of Home Affairs’ Regulation on Technical Guidance on Formulating and Establishing Minimum Service Standards for Government Departments. Thus Ministry of National Education issued Ministrial Regulation No 152010 on minimum service standard for basic education. 227 For a summary of the debates, see UNESCO 2005 Education for all: The quality imperative, Chapter I 228 UNESCO 2005 Education for all: The quality imperative, p3 229 UNICEF and Government of Indonesia 2000 Challenges for a new generation: The situation of children and women in Indonesia, 2000, UNICEF: Jakarta, p101 230 Weston, S. 2008 A review of the implementation of nine years universal basic education. Report to USAID, Decentralized Basic Education - 3 . USAID: Jakarta, p4, cited in: Cannon, R. and Arlianti, R. 2007 Transition to and participation in junior secondary school 231 Santika, M. and Cahyanto, J. 2009 Indonesia’s innovative teacher training program for investing in the future, presented at the 4th World Teacher’s Day in Thailand, and at the 12th UNESCO APEID Conference 2009 232 World Bank 2005 ‘Improving education quality’, Indonesia Policy Briefs: Ideas for the Future, The World Bank: Jakarta.