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However, as seen in Section 3, institutional care for children in Indonesia is pervasive and many institutions function as cheap or free boarding schools for children from impoverished families.
There are no data available on the proportion of children who are in institutional care in Aceh due to the loss of one or both parents as compared to the proportion who are there because of poverty
or neglect. Usman, the child mentioned above who fled the violent disciplinarian regime of a religious boarding school, had also lost both his parents when he was younger and was looked
after by his grandmother.
443
He received a scholarship of IDR 600,000 per year, which helped his grandmother, but after he led the boarding school he stopped attending school for a year. He later
joined another Islamic boarding school but also ‘dropped out’ when it emerged that the school focused almost solely on Islamic teaching at the expense of other subjects that Usman was keen
to learn. Eventually, Usman went to an orphanage where he found stability, appropriate schooling, and sports and entertainment activities, which he likes. During interviews with children in Aceh, it
emerged that a number of children opted to go into orphanages, as it was the only avenue open to them to secure education without burdening their families financially. The resourcefulness and
foresight of these children is remarkable they are very aware of the importance of education but it happens at a huge personal, emotional and developmental cost. See Box 4.4.5 for the case of
two teenage girls who willingly went to orphanages in order to be able to continue at school.
Box 4.4.5: Tia and Hera, children with parents who live in an orphanage in order to attend school
Tia, is a fatherless 13-year-old girl who lives in the Darussa’adah Orphanage in Aceh Besar. From the time she was in Year 4 of primary school, her mother, who relied on a small and
uncertain income, kept moving locations. Because of the frequent moves, Tia never had close friends and she missed her life in the neighbourhood in Langsa. In Banda Aceh, her mother
married again to a widower with six children. As a tsunami survivor, her stepfather received housing aid and they all lived in Ujong Bateh. As a fatherless child, Tia received a scholarship
of IDR 600,000. Whilst happy with the assistance, the scholarship became insufficient once she started secondary school where the fees and others costs increased. Her stepfather works
as a construction worker and has a very small income. In the end, she asked her mother’s permission to go and live in an orphanage so that she could keep going to school. Tia is
now in the Year 2 of secondary school. She still receives her scholarship, but costs - such as school fees and school materials worksheets - are now covered by the orphanage, and she
is saving her scholarship for university.
444
Although Tia went to the orphanage voluntarily, she does miss her mother and her house and started crying when speaking of her home life.
Similarly, Herayanti is an 18-year-old senior high school student who has been staying in an orphanage for similar reasons. She comes from a poor family with uncertain income. As
primary and secondary schools were free and close by, she was capable of attending school, but this became impossible at senior secondary school level. She received a scholarship
from the Aceh Utara District Government but it was insufficient to cover the fees and costs of going to senior secondary school and she asked permission to go to an orphanage in order
to be able to carry on going to school.
445
“For sure I would be happier at home because my parents are there. Here [in the orphanage] I feel sad since I am so far away from my parents,
but here my basic needs are fulfilled.”
Source: Interviews with Tia, Aceh Besar, 5 October 2009, and with Hera, Aceh Besar, 4 October 2009
443 Interview with Usman name changed, Aceh Besar 6 October 2009 444 Interview with the administratorsteward of Darussa’adah orphanage, Aceh Besar 5 October 2009
445 Ibid.
The interviews with children in institutional care reveal a mixed range of experiences. Some, such as Usman, report being happy and fulfilled in that environment, but most of the others have
much more mixed experiences in which they report boredom, alienation and loneliness.
446
Whilst the conflict and tsunami make Aceh something of an exceptional case, it still remains, however,
that institutional care should be a last resort, that the well-being and welfare of children in care should be improved, and that wherever possible the reunion of children with their families should
be promoted.
447
It is notable, for instance, that in all of the cases reported here the children in orphanages had living relatives and were receiving some form of aid or scholarship. After the tsunami, the
Provincial Government of Aceh set up a scholarship fund amounting to IDR 200 billion in 2009, which was disbursed to over 100,000 children.
448
The scholarships targeted displaced children, those living in orphanages, and those who are fatherless or parentless though not motherless at
the primary and junior secondary school levels. Other scholarships, notably from the Indonesian Red Cross, are available and in some cases are applicable to children attending secondary
school. There are no data on the share of scholarships provided by the government versus those provided by other sources, although from the interviews conducted with the Provincial BAPPEDA,
in total IDR 294 billion was made available in 2010 across the government agencies, and this is likely higher than that provided by other agencies, which are usually restricted to particular
working areas.
449
There is concern that the amount will decrease in 2011 due to declining oil and gas revenues.
450
There are evidently a number of issues with the scholarships. In several of the interviews, the children acknowledged the importance of scholarships and financial support, but they also
reported issues such as not knowing how much they were entitled to receive and delays in the disbursement of funds, which created uncertainty. In addition, the scholarship system seems
to work relatively well at the primary school level and in some cases at the junior secondary school level as long as the school is free or does not charge extensive extra fees, but becomes
insufficient at the senior secondary school level.
4.4.7 EDUCATION PLANNING, DECENTRALISATION AND SPECIAL AUTONOMY: INNOVATIONS AND CHALLENGES
4.4.7.1 Education as a development priority In 2007, the Provincial Government of Aceh promulgated its first Regional Medium-Term
Development Plan RPJMD 2007-2012 since gaining Special Autonomy status.
451
Aceh’s RPJMD 2007-2012 provides essential guidance for regional development and for strengthening the
provision of services following their deterioration during the conflict and after the tsunami.
The RPJMD 2007-2012 identiies human resource development as a key development priority. It specifically highlights the importance of improving the quality of schooling for children of all
socio-economic backgrounds, both in rural and urban areas. Specifically, the Aceh Provincial Government’s efforts concerning education include the following aims
452
:
446 Interview with Syakirah, Aceh Besar 8 October 2009 447 Interview with UNICEF Staff, Banda Aceh 5 September 2009
448 Interview with staff of the Provincial Ofice of Social Affairs, Banda Aceh 17 June 2010 449 Interview with staff of the Provincial BAPPEDA, Banda Aceh 19 November 2010
450 Ibid. 451 Aceh Provincial Government 2007 NAD Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah RPJM 2007-2012, p1
452 Ibid.
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• To improve the quality of all schools throughout Aceh, both in terms of physical infrastructure and the quality of teaching and administration.
• To provide free education for primary and secondary schooling and eliminate burdensome school fees.
• To provide scholarships for orphaned victims of the conlict and tsunami up to the tertiary level.
• To increase competency standards for teaching staff. • To give special attention to religious education institutions, such as dayah.
• To develop vocational schools in certain areas. • To allocate a minimum of 30 per cent of the budget for education.
The importance of human resource development throughout the education sector is further emphasised in the Provincial Strategic Plan Renstra for Education 2007-2011, which adopts
similar priorities to those at the national level as speciied in the RPJMN 2010-2014:
453
1. Improving equal access to education. Approaches include removing financial obstacles to
education and improving efficiency and graduation rates at all levels. A key emphasis is placed on graduation rates at the primary school level, with a view to improving continuation
rates to secondary school. Increasing the participation levels of the business community and the community in general in matters of education, and expanding the availability of education
facilities including improving access to senior secondary school in isolated areas is also a key priority.
2. Improving the quality, relevance and efficiency of education. This is to be achieved through
an emphasis on planning, with the aims of: improving teacher allocation; improving school decentralisation and institutional management with the introduction of accountability
mechanisms, audits and school-based management; reforming the school curriculum and related instruction manuals; decentralising planning for teacher development and
management; and improving the monitoring of both school performance and student achievement.
3. Improving the management, image and accountability of the education system. The
approach adopted seeks to improve, professionalise and standardize the management of schools both at provincial and districtmunicipal levels. The strengthening of planning and
monitoring systems forms an important part of this process with a view to improving the governance and control systems within schools.
4. Developing an education system rooted in Islamic values. This is to be achieved through: the
establishment of partnerships between the education authorities and key religious institutions; the provision of textbooks and materials with Islamic content; specific teacher training; and
the setting up of a monitoring task force.
It is clear that the RPJMD seeks to address some of the key issues and weaknesses highlighted in earlier in this subsection. This in itself constitutes an important step, but whilst the intent is
clear, the mechanisms and funding necessary to underpin these policy objectives are not always immediately clear. The shortfalls in budget and revenues due to declines in the oil and gas sector
have consequences for the education budget, adding to the challenges of implementing the ambitious RPJMD. The Government of Aceh faces dificulty in inancing education programmes:
453 Ibid., pp39-41
“[The] education funds from oil and gas revenues this year total IDR 160 billion, whereas we have budgeted IDR 154 billion rupiah for the public school teachers welfare fund, and at the
same time we also have to fund the orphan scholarships programme which amounts to IDR 208 billion.” Interview with staff of the Provincial Ofice of Education, Banda Aceh, 22 June
2010
Whilst the question of budgets and finances casts a long shadow over the future of education in the province, some important innovations in the management of education planning
and monitoring have nonetheless taken place. At the end of 2009, the Government of Aceh established a Coordinating Task Force for the Development of Education in Aceh TKP2A, Tim
Koordinasi Pembangunan Pendidikan Aceh to monitor the implementation of the Provincial RPJMD in the education sector, as well as to recommend revisions of education-related qanun.
454
Similar to the task forces established in other provinces to tackle problems in particular sectors, this Task Force is led by the Governor and is coordinated through the Aceh Education Assembly
MPA, Majelis Pendidikan Aceh, which was set up in 2006. The Task Force also incorporates a number of representatives from key local governmental institutions including the BAPPEDA
and the Provincial Office of Religious Affairs, as well as NGOs, academics, and international development agencies.
455
The Task Force is co-financed through local budgets and by the Australian Government’s Support Education in Aceh SEDIA programme. SEDIA’s staff provide
consultation for the Task Force and its working groups.
456
The working groups in the Task Force are divided into monitoring and evaluation, quality improvement, and financing.
457
The work of the Task Force has important implications for local authorities who may face budget cuts if they fail to meet key targets, such as studentteacher ratios or reductions in early school
leaving rates as discussed above.
458
However, the working groups in the Task Force report that the lack of accurate data makes effective monitoring something of an arduous task.
459
The working groups have had to initiate their own data collection as well as institute checks on
existing data from schools and local governments to circumvent these problems. The Task Force also works with consultants, research institutions, international NGOs and academics in order to
overcome the resistance of local government and certain stakeholders to some of the initiatives it is trying to implement, especially in relation to data collection.
460
According to SEDIA staff, the Task Force is a positive innovation that contributes to better monitoring of the implementation of
the educational components of Aceh’s RPJMD.
4.4.7.2 Musrenbang and community influence over formal education policy The decentralisation process has had a major impact on the planning, management and delivery
of education services. As has been reiterated throughout this report, decentralisation provides opportunities to identify local priorities and to improve responsiveness within a participatory
framework. However, the challenges of institution building and coordination also have the potential to weaken the positive contributions of decentralisation. Uneven capacities at the local
level and the weaknesses of the supporting regulatory frameworks tend to be present throughout Indonesia, and Aceh is no exception. The evidence emerging from Aceh also suggests that
454 Interview with staff of the Provincial BAPPEDA, Banda Aceh 16 June 2010 and with staff of SEDIA, Banda Aceh 1 July 2010 455 Interview with staff of the Provincial BAPPEDA, Banda Aceh 16 June 2010
456 Interview with staff of SEDIA 1 July 2010 457 Interview with staff of the Provincial BAPPEDA, Banda Aceh 16 June 2010
458 Interview with staff of the Provincial Ofice of Education, Banda Aceh 22 June 2010 459 Interview with staff of SEDIA, Banda Aceh 1 July 2010
460 Ibid.
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while development planning is supposed to be both ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’, there have been serious problems in setting up participatory institutions designed to reinforce the ‘bottom-
up’ aspects of the procedures. The musrenbang musyawarah perencanaan pembangunan, or consultative development planning forums in particular is supposed to be institutionalised as
a central mechanism of participatory consultation and deliberation, but the evidence from the fieldwork for this report suggests this is rarely the case. In general, community leaders in the FGD
mentioned that lip service is paid to the musrenbang contribution to the formulation of district priorities, strategic plans and annual work-plans, but that effective incorporation of community
voices in the policy planning process is lacking - as has been found to be sometimes the case in the other case studies presented in this report. FGD participants perceived that line agencies
develop and set the plans to be proposed for inclusion in district budgets with little regard for community views:
“There is no budget for musrenbang in villages. The musrenbang conducted in sub-districts should be attended by representatives from musrenbang at the village level, but in reality,
those who attend in the sub-district musrenbang were only the village heads. This meant that a lot of programmes incorporated in the musrenbang are the result of line agency
priorities, while programmes and priorities emerging from the sub-districts are rejected.” FGD participant, Aceh Timur, 14 September 2009
At district level, similar mishandling of the musrenbang process was reported by FGD participants, indicating that education planning tends to be handed down based on provincial
level priorities:
“In the district musrenbang, we did not propose education programmes or activities because we were directed to concentrate on infrastructure, social and cultural affairs. Until now the
programmes and activities related to education have always been handled by the Provincial Office of Education.” Interview with staff of the Peureulak sub-district office, Aceh Timur, 14
September 2009
Further, the inclusion of women and children in discussions and decision-making has been weak. However, it is important to note that a number of alternative parallel or informal mechanisms
of consultation and participation have also emerged in Aceh over the past few years. As mentioned earlier, international organisations and NGOs have been prominent actors in the
wake of the tsunami and have played a positive role here in emphasising women’s and children’s participation. One example is the Child Forum initially set up by UNICEF and other NGOs in order
to provide space and channels for children’s voices and participation, which was later formalised though its adoption by the Ministry of Social Affairs. These distinct initiatives still fall short of a
comprehensive policy, but they represent a step in the right direction.
4.4.7.3 School-based management and communitypractitioner inputs into education practice
The political reforms provided for under Decentralisation Law No. 221999 have impacted on the decentralisation of public services, including on education. Law No. 202003 on the National
Education System states that management of early education, basic education, and secondary school education is to be implemented based on minimum service standards with the principle
of school-based management Article 51. Under this model, schools are given broader autonomy in the management of school affairs with the participation of stakeholders teachers,
students, education staff, and community members. This led to the creation of a number of new approaches and institutional arrangements. These include the Education Council Majelis
Pendidikan Daerah, which serves as an independent board, comprising community members
461 Minister of Education Decree No. 044U2002 on Education Councils and School Committees; Pollitt, C., Birchall, J. and Putman, K. 1998 Decentralising public service management, Macmillan Press Ltd: London, p7 - There are two types of formal authority under
decentralisation: 1. Administrative decentralisation, in which authority is given to a body that is appointed rather than elected, thus it is primarily
managerial, administrative or expert rather than political. 2. Political decentralisation, in which the principal recipients of the decentralised authority include elected politicians andor the
directly elected representatives of some relevant public. The formation of MPD represents the former, since the members are appointed by the governor, while enhancement of School
Committee, which includes a substantial proportion of governors who are elected by parents, represents the latter. 462 Pollitt, C., Birchall, J. and Putman, K. 1998 Decentralising public service management
concerned with improving the quality, equity and efficiency of education management at the districtmunicipality level, and school committees
461
. The functions of the Education Council are:
462
1. Promoting community concerns and commitment towards the implementation of quality education.
2. Promoting collaboration with civil society individualsorganization, government, and parliament to implement quality education.
3. Taking stock and assessing community aspirations, ideas and needs related to education. 4. Giving advice and recommendations to local governmentparliament regarding the formulation
of education policies and programmes, and setting performance criteria for the local government, education staff teacherstutors and school principals, education facilities, and
other related matters.
5. Promoting the participation of parents and communities in education management for increased education quality and more equitable distribution of resources.
6. Conducting evaluations and supervision of the implementation of policies, programmes, processes, and outcomes of education.
The school-based management system allows schools to manage their own funds and gives schools the ability to set up programmes that suit their needs and priorities, as identified with
the involvement of local stakeholders communities, teachers, principals. The participation of stakeholders is accommodated by the school committees - independent boards made up of
elected parent representatives, businesses, and community leaders. Schools officials principals and teachers serve as the executive and work together with the school committee - as the
legislative arm of the process - to design school programmes and budget allocation. School funds comprise the BOS fund received from the central government and other block grants from local
government, funds from donors and parents, and funds from other sources. Bottom-up planning in education begins with a proposal from the school administrator and school committee, and
then proceeds up to the district and provincial government levels.
While innovative and improving community participation in education, the school-based management system is facing a series of challenges. First, there are overall budget limitations,
which are set to become more problematic as oil and gas revenues, and ultimately Otsus funds, decrease. A number of operational issues have also emerged. On one hand, schools find it
difficult to bid for funds from the district government in the time they have been allocated and there are notable problems of communication between schools and the government. Although
school-based management is supposed to have been rolled out throughout Aceh, most schools have failed to have their budgets approved by district governments, as indicated by a primary
school teacher in Banda Aceh:
