A STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF SYNTACTIC DEVIATIONS IN THE COLLECTED POEMS OF LANGSTON HUGHES EDITED BY ARNOLD RAMPERSAD & DAVID ROESSEL.

Presente

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“Rise up, Take courage, and Do it” (The Holy Bible: Ezra 10: 4)

“A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.”

Winston Churchill

“It’s not about being the best, it’s about being better than you were yesterday.”

(Unknown)

“A miracle is another name of an effort” (TTBY)

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DEDICATIONS

This thesis is wholeheartedly dedicated to:

Mama (Nurmala Siahaan)

Bapak (Maslan Hutagalung)

My Lovely Brothers (Morlan, Jaswadi, Hendra, and Christofel)

My Beloved (Albert F. Aritonang)

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opportunity and granting me the capability to proceed successfully. In accomplishing this thesis, I owe many people for the support, guidance, assistance, and help.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and thanks to Titik Sudartinah, M.A., my first supervisor and Niken Anggraeni, M.A., my second supervisor, for their endless support, advice, patience, and great guidance in helping me throughout this thesis.

My greatest gratitude goes to Dr. Widyastuti Purbani, M.A. (the Dean of Languages and Arts Faculty), Samsul Ma’arif, M.A. (the Head of English Language Education Department), Yosa A. Alzuhdy M.A. (my academic consultant), all lecturers of the English Education Department, and the whole staff of the Languages and Arts Faculty of Yogyakarta State University who taught and guided me during my years of study.

On this special occasion, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude and appeciation to both of my supportive parents: Bapak Maslan Hutagalung and

Mama Nurmala Siahaan, for their moral support, prayer, and love. I also would like to thank my brothers, Hendra Hutagalung and Christofel Hutagalung, who continously pray for me and give me spirit.

My gratitude is also dedicated to my grandparents, for their prayers, big support, and love. I also would like to thank my cousins, Mutiara, Dian, Christina, and Felicia (for their help and support), so that I finally finish this thesis.

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APPROVAL………... ii

RATIFICATION... iii

PERNYATAAN... iv

MOTTOS………... v

DEDICATIONS... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……… vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS……… ix

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES xii LIST OF APPENDICES………. xiii

ABSTRACT………... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………. 1

A.Background of the Research……….... 1

B.Focus of the Research……….. 5

C.Objectives of the Research………... 7

D.Research Significances………... 7

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK………... 9

A.Literature Review………... 9

1. Stylistics……… 8

2. Stylistics as the Combination of Linguistics and Literary Analysis……... 10

3. Language Deviation……….. 21

4. Standard English and Non-Standard English………... 35

5. African-American Vernacular English………... 37

6. Langston Hughes and The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes... 38

B.Conceptual Framework………. 42

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD………... 46

A.Research Type……….. 46

B.Data and Source of Data……….. 47

C.Research Instruments………... 47

D.Research procedure……….. 49

1. Data Collection Technique………... 49

2. Data Analysis………... 49

E. Trustworthiness………... 50

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION……….. 52

A.Findings……… 52

B.Discussion………... 54

1. Types of Syntactic Deviations……….. 54

a. Multiple Negation………. 55

b. Inversion……… 60

c. Subject Displacement……… 63

d. Noun Phrase Displacement………... 66

e. Preposition Phrase Displacement……….. 69

f. Adjectival Phrase Displacement……….... 71

g. Adverb Displacement……… 74

2. Author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations………... 75 a. To Show Jazz Music that Expresses as Sorrow and Loneliness……... 76

b. To Portray American Dream………. 78

c. To Show African-American’s Struggle………. 81

d. To Depict Racism in America………... 84

f. To Show Self-Actualization……….. 89 g. To Show the Other Problems Faced by African-American…………. 92

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSIONS AND

SUGGESTIONS……….. 98

A.Conclusions 98

1. Types of Syntactic Deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston

Hughes………..

98

2. Functions of Syntactic Deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston

Hughes………..

98

B.Suggestions………... 99

REFERENCES……… 101

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Figure 2: Analytical Construct………

Table 1: Types of Sentence………... 18

Table 2: Examples of PP Displacement……… 29

Table 3: Examples of NP Displacement………... 30

Table 4: Examples of AP Displacement………... 31

Table 5: Examples of Adverb Displacement……… 32

Table 6: Examples of Subject Displacement……… 33

Table 7: Data Sheet of the Types and Functions of Syntactic Deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel………. 48

Table 8: The Data Findings of the Types and Functions of Syntactic Deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes…………. 52

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Roessel……… 104

Appendix 2: The poems used as data taken from the Collected Poems of Langston

Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad & David Roessel………

135

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09211141026 ABSTRACT

This study aims at identifying and describing syntactic deviation found in the collection of poems written by Langston Hughes. The objectives of this study are to identify and describe (1) the types and (2) the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

This study was a descriptive qualitative study with the researcher as the main instrument and the data sheet as the secondary instrument. The object of this research was the poetic utterances in the Collected Poems of Langston Hughes.

The data were utterances in the form of phrases, clauses, and sentences containing syntactic deviations. In collecting the data, interpreting every sentence in the poem is the first thing to do. Then, the data were categorized and analyzed based on each category of types and functions of syntactic deviations. To enhance the trustworthiness of the data in this study, triangulations applied by asked the supervisors to check the data and two friends to review his study.

The result of the research shows two important points. First, there are seven types of syntactic deviations; they are (1) multiple negation, (2) inversion, (3) subject displacement, (4) noun phrase displacement, (5) prepositional phrase displacement, (6) adjectival phrase displacement, and (7) adverb displacement. Second, there are seven purposes of the author wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations. They are (1) to show jazz music that expresses sorrow and loneliness, (2) to portray American dream, (3) to show African-American’s struggle, (4) to depict racism in America, (5) to face difficulty wisely, (6) to show self-actualization, and (7) to show the other problems faced by African-American. As a result of types, multiple negation was the type which mostly appeared in Langston Hughes’ poems. It was proved that more than half of the findings of syntactic deviations belong to multiple negation categories. Hughes used more negations which gave more emphasis to the message without changing the structure of the sentence. As the result of functions, Langston Hughes talked more about the relationship problems than about the American Dream or racism in America at that time, for example, the relationship affair among African-Americans.

Keywords: Stylistic, Syntactic Deviations, The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Research

People express everything that exists in their mind through language. They have their own style when talking to other people even though they have the same purposes to tell. In the simple way, style can be meant as the manner of expression in writing and speaking, just as there is a manner of doing things. This study aimed to discuss language used by African-American that has unique style in communicating.

In the past, African-American was uneducated people because they were poor and whites treated them as slaves where slaves were not worth to get proper education. Thus, it led them to use a different language from those who used Standard English, especially whites. In fact, this phenomenon still happen because until nowadays, every literary work related to African-American still used their style of language that quite distinctive, e.g. movies, proses, and song lyrics. Even though they are educated, they still use Black English style because they wanted to show it as their identity of African-American.

This study analyzed African-American language because it was interesting to discuss and this study would inform the readers that there is no wrong language even if it does not belong to Standard English. Thus, the researcher used styliclistic to conduct this research because it dealt with the distinctive expression in language and the description of its purpose.

According to Simpson, P. (2004: 17), stylistic is a method used to interprate language style where the language has a role as a function of text that can produce utterances (literary or otherwise) in a time, a place, in a cultural, and cognitive context. He emphasizes that stylistics can use to explore language, and, more specifically, to explore creativity in language use. Conducting stylistic research enriches our ways of thinking about language and explores language towards our understanding of (literary) texts.

Moreover, stylistics also describes literary style. The literary style is the style of literary works applyed in all components of a literary work i.e. on the level of language, ideas, plot, etc. Since this research belongs to linguistics, this study focuses on the language.

Language can be either in a spoken or in written form. In a spoken text, it can be in the form of utterances and in a written text or in sentences. People can discover text everywhere they are. Examples of text are newspapers, books, articles, short stories, poems, songs, novels, and so on. Considering the limitation of the available data, this study uses a collection of poem to be the object of the research.

There are many definitions of poetry coming from the poets and critics. The word “poetry” is derived from the Greek word. Poiein means to make or to construct. According to S. T Coleridge (in Al-khader, 2014: 3), a well known writer, poetry is the result of the poet’s imagination and the best words in the best order. Moreover, Wordsworth (in Peck and Loyle, 1984: 11) states that poetry is a kind of expression of human feelings and emotions related to a sad or a happy

thing that is experienced in people’s daily life. He also emphasizes that poetry is words which are arranged in a regular pattern of rhymed and accented lines or the art of writing of literary words in metrical poem. However, Marsitowarni in Lumban Gaol, D. (2011: 6) says that poem is a reflection upon life and also argument about something. Then, for the last definition from (Marulafau in Lumban Gaol, D. (2011: 6), poetry is beautiful language arranged systematically and with specific patterns in it. The researcher herself agree with Wordsworth and Maruflau that poetry is a kind of expression and emotion of people who experienced something memorable in their life whether it is bad or good and then make it into a beautiful language arranged systematically or rhymed.

In poems, the writers have their own style to reveal the language to express their feelings and also to make people know that it is hers or his. Definitely, people usually can understand language if it has the structure, grammatical structure, and has the meaning, logical sense. Thus, people think, the author writes every sentence in his or her novel grammatically to make people understand the language easier. However, it does not always exist because many authors want to show their identity and create artistic beauty in their works. Therefore, there are some poets use deviant languages in terms of grammatical, phonology, or even in the semantic sense. The author uses these deviations to achieve his purposes.

When an author desires to make his or her language to be aesthetic, creative or inventive, he or she uses the language different from the conventional and everyday language. Using unconventional language, he or she allows the

readers to interprate what in author’s mind and it left impression in the readers’ mind. This kind of creative use of language is technically called as linguistic deviation, by which the author creates language deviated from the norms of literary convention or everyday speech.

For this study, the researcher used collected poems written by a well known poet, Langston Hughes. The poem is entitled The Collected Poem of Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad & David Roessel. Langston Hughes is African- American author who starts his writing in 1921, entitled The Crisis. He famously wrote about the period that "The negro was in vogue", which was later paraphrased as "When Harlem was in vogue". All the poems he wrote during his life time, the majority is about black people at that time. His poems were worth to be analyzed because he was a very famous poet who wrote African-American’s life and he experienced it himself.

In this collected poem, the researcher found language deviations especially grammatical deviations. Grammatical deviations consist of two deviations, they are morphological deviations and syntactic deviations. Since, there was limitation of data containing morphological deviations, the researcher decided only focusing to examine syntactic deviations, i.e. types of syntactic deviations in The Collected poems of Langston Hughes. This study concentrated on Langston Hughes’ unique style; it focused on the syntactical deviations to see an aesthetic aspect occurs in poetry.

B. Focus of the Research

When reading poetry, many people have difficulties to understand what actually poets want to say. As a result, they make their own interpretations of poems that are not based on proper analysis but more on their internal feelings, which can lead to many interpretations that differ from one another. Thus, that interpretation can be different from the original intention of the poet. Nevertheless, sometimes it is quite hard to understand, especially in the case of modern poetry, if a poem does not evoke any of a reader's personal experience or feelings, he or she would be hardly ever interested in it.

The fact that poetry is quite demanding on the reader, because of all hidden meanings and missing information. Reading poetry, as well as reading other literary genres, can develop the fantasy of readers. Poets mostly give to the readers a new opportunity to think about things which they normally do not think about. That is why in the researcher decides to examine this study, she would like to deal with poetry so the readers would be helped to interpret it through firstly understanding the sentences grammatically. The researcher believes that better understanding of poetry and also literature in general can develop students' creative and critical thinking and can help people, in their own life, to search and find other points of view in their own life.

The language of poetry (and not only poetical languages) is studied by the linguistic discipline called stylistic. It can help us to understand poetry more and to analyze it in more detail. This discipline deals with a linguistic description and its relation to meaning and an analysis of all linguistic levels, i.e. grammar,

sounds, words, textual structure can help readers not only to appreciate a poet's style of writing but also to understand how the poet uses stylistics means to express the meaning of a poem (Short, 1969: 5). Thus, it can support the interpretations of the poem by reasonable arguments and make them more complex and how successful our interpretation depended on our knowledge of the language we analyze, i.e. its grammar rules and lexis.

Poetry itself is very specific as we have to know grammar rules and lexis in order to understand what is odd in the poem, i.e. what is deviant. However, the researcher limited this study because of the limitation of time and the knowledge of the researcher about stylistics topic. In fact, this topic is part of varieties of poetic license but this study described it shortly rather than language deviation especially syntactical deviations to make deep information. Then, this study also limits the object, poetic utterances in the collected poems of Langston Hughes. His collected poems is divided into five periods i.e. 1921-1930, 1931-1940, 1941-1950, 1951-1960, and 1961-1967. Though, she determines the first till the fourth period because considering the proper data and limitation of time. This limitation helped the researcher focuses on analysis of this research i.e. to identify the types and to describe the purposes of Langston Hughes wrote his poems using syntactic deviations.

C. Formulation of the Problems

Regarding the limitation of the problems, the researcher formulates the problems as follows:

1. What are the types of syntactic deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes?

2. What are the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes

using syntactic deviations?

D. Objectives of the Research

In accordance with the: formulation of the problems, the objectives of this study are:

1. to identify the types of syntactic deviations in The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, and

2. to describe the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

E. Research Significance

This study is expected to contribute both theoretically and practically. 1. Theoretically

The result of this research can enrich the development of linguistic knowledge, especially on syntactic deviations found in a literary work e.g. a novel.

2. Practically, the result of the research is expected to give contribution to the following parties.

a. Students of English Language and Literature

This study can inform the linguistic students that there is no such a right or wrong language even though it does not belong to Standard English because there must be an intention behind it, especially in poems because the poets have right to make their language aesthetic.

b. English Lecturers

This research hopefully served as an additional reference and gives more examples of texts that have language deviations.

c. Other researchers

The result of this research will be used as the reference to conduct a further research.

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A.Literature Review 1. Stylistics

Missikova (2003: 17) states that stylistics is considered as a field of study where the methods used are to select and implement linguistic, extra-linguistic or artistic expressive means in the process of communication. Therefore, people can distinguish linguistic stylistics and literary (poetic) stylistics. To strengthen his point of view, Mick Short, a Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University and a leading authority in the field of stylistics, also says that stylistics can sometimes look like either linguistic or literary criticism, depends on where the readers are standing when looking at it (Short in Missikova, 2003: 17).

According to J. Mistrík in Missikova (2003: 18), stylistics can be defined as the study of choice and the type of linguistic use, extra-linguistic and aesthetic means, as well as particular techniques used in communication. This study is used

to interpret and to distinguish the linguistic element in a writing, group of writings, or

a text, i.e. a structure capable of being interpreted by a code, including intentional

structures like a culture or a whole language.

In addition, Peter Verdonk (2002: 4) states that stylistics is the study of varieties of language which has position in the context. Stylistics also attempts to establish principles to explain the particular choices made by individuals and

social groups in their use of language, such as socialization, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism. Thus, stylistics can be meant as the analysis of distinctive expression in language and the description of its purpose and effect.

2. Stylistics as the Combination of Linguistic and Literary Analysis

Linguistic analysis cannot be abandonned in analyzing literature because both linguistics and literature complete each other. Commonly, language is used as a medium of literary works that can make a unique and shopisticated works. Language is a device which influences the meaning of submission of its works and identifies what kind of language used by the author. However, in analyzing language, people should consider literature as a way of how language is used. Leech (1981: 1) says that literature cannot be investigated apart from language and vice versa. Thus, stylistics appears to be a bridge between linguistics and literature.

Stylistics is the study of literary style or the study of the use of language in literature. It analyses the distinctive expression in literary language and the description of its purpose and effect. Crystal, D. (1997: 71) observes that most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex language within literature, i.e. ‘literary stylistics’. He says that the scope is sometimes pointed to concentrate on the more unusual features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more

likely to reveal the secrets of its construction than the language of plays and novels.

As stated by Leech (1981: 14), stylistics has two main goals: to explain the relation between language and artistic function, and to discover the author’s works through uncertain acknowledgement (attribution). In brief, these categorises make stylistics into two types, literary and attributional stylistics. In this study, the researcher only explains the literary styles because the language of literature is different from the language of everyday life, and also the author’s language is more difficult to understand than the language of common people. Literary language may violate or deviate from the generally observed rules of the daily language in many different ways: some obvious, some subtle. Both means that motives for deviation are worth careful study.

Creative writers, and more particularly the poets, enjoy a unique freedom to range over its entire communicative source. Most of what is considered characteristic of literary language has its roots in everyday uses of language, and can be studied with some references to these uses.

Example of literary styles:

A standard rhyme that might be found inside a conventional Valentine’s card:

Roses are red, Violets are blue. Sugar is sweet, And so are you

The example of the poem is one of today’s version poem of roses are red, violets are blue poem. The original version was written by Sir Edmund Spencer (1552-2559). He is an important English poet who is famous for writing the epic

poem ‘The Faerie Queen’. This roses poem is kind of literary work contains rhyming. It can be seen from the last word in each line which has the same pronounciation. The author makes a creative of language to escape from banality. However, to make such a literary style, the author deviates the rules of grammar in English especially part of speech i.e. the last line And so are you that should be ended by adjective like the three last words in the previous line. The word you is selected to strengthen the meaning of the poem so it avoids the rules of standard language.

Moreover, literary stylistics finds enough explanation by relating the critic’s ideas of aesthetic appreciation with the linguist’s ideas of linguistic description. Those two elements, aesthetic appreciation and linguistic description exist in a cycle motion where linguistic observation encourages literary insight and literary insight does the same thing for a further linguistic observation. This idea is called as “Philological Circle” (Spitzer in Leech, 1981:13).

Linguistic Description

Seeking Aesthetic Function Seeking Linguistic Evidence

Literary Appreciation Figure 1: Philological Circle

Then, literary stylistics also selects four language features determined by artistic motivation as the primary intention of investigation (Leech, 1981: 12). They are concepts of style, features of style, style as achoice,style and context.

a. The Concept of Style

According to Leech (1981: 10), the concept of style generally means as the way where language is used in a given context, by a given person, and for a given purpose. On the other hand, it only gives basic information that style is something to do with language use, but itcan be applied both in written and spoken communication. Thus, Bally in Missikova (2003: 14) draws his concept under the supervision of Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, who tries to make the concept of style narrower. He discovers that the concepts of langue

and parole would be relatively sufficient. Langue is the code or system of rules common to speakers of a language, while parole is the particular uses of the system, or selections from the system, that speakers or writers make on particular occasions.

In addition, Leech also gives an example of comparing terms of weather forecasting’s official style (‘bright intervals’, ‘scattered showers’, etc.) with some expressions of everyday conversational style (‘lovely day’, ‘a bit chilly’, etc.). In this case, the official weather forecasting and everyday conversation is the example of the langue, while the expressions (‘bright intervals’, ‘lovely day’,

‘scattered shower’, etc.) means as itsparole. The example implies the idea that style relates to parole. Furthermore, a style is formed by the selection from total

linguistic repertoire (Leech, 1981: 11). This concept is important as the starting point in investigating style in literary works.

b. Features of Style

Some particular features can be considered in investigating style. The term

feature means the occurrence in a text of a linguistic or stylistic category (Leech, 1981: 64). Every literary text consists of linguistic and stylistic categories. Some examples of linguistic categories are ‘noun’, ‘verb’, ‘transitive’, ‘question’, ‘nasal consonant’, and ‘color term’. Examples of stylistic categories are ‘balanced sentence’, ‘alliteration’, ‘personification’, and ‘metaphor’. Stylistic categories are more complex than the linguistic ones and are considered to be difficult to define. However, both categories are important to be considered in analyzing style. This research applies Leech’s methods in analyzing style in literary works. Leech (1981: 75) states that it is natural that the categories will overlap, so that the same feature may be noted under different headings. He states that there are four general headings: lexical categories, grammatical categories, figures of speech, and context and cohesion.

1) Lexical Categories

Lexical categories are the group of words used in a text. They cover the lexical items of a text in a general sense. They are also used to discover how choice of words involves various types of meaning. They may contain a general description of vocabulary choice, and examinations of nouns, adjectives, verbs,

adverbs, etc (Leech, 1981: 76). Furthermore, there are four main types of vocabulary of a text based on Nation’s Teaching Vocabulary Strategies and Techniques (2008: 2): High Frequency Words, Academic Words, Technical Words, and Low Frequency Words.

The first type is High Frequency Words. The words belong to this group are divided into two main parts which are function words, e.g. at, a, you, and

content words which include some parts of speech like nouns, verbs, and adjectives. The second type is Academic Words. Academic words include words for special purposes but are frequent within a certain area, e.g. essential, clarify, chronology, etc. The next type is Technical Words. This group is made to categorize the more specialized academic words into a more specified area. For example, the word enchantress is included into the technical word of Fairytales text, since it is used frequently in fairytales. The last type is Low Frequency Words. The words belong to this group have relatively low frequency of occurrences. Each word of this group does not occur very often. They mostly have a very narrow range and are not really needed in each usage of language. The words also make up a very small proportion of the running words in a text, for examples, azure, synonym of bright blue, feeble, synonym of not strong, jest, synonym of joke, etc.

2) Grammatical Categories

Grammatical categories are linguistic categories that have the effect of adjusting the forms of some class in a language (Radford, 2004: 3). These categories are divided into some classifications.

a) Sentence Types

As stated by Iriskulov (2006: 51), based on their functions, there are four types of sentence. They are declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and imperative. A declarative sentence states an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor it ask a question. A declarative sentence usually ends in a period, even though it may end in an exclamation point. For instance, in the sentence I now pronounce you husband and wife, the word pronounce in that sentence means I as the subject

declare or announce a couple to become husband and wife. This sentence is commonly heard in endowment in a church.

Then, an interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a direct question. It is punctuated with a question mark at the end. In English, an interrogative sentence normally changes the word order so that the verb or part of the verb comes before the subject. For example, Do you have a minute? that means that the speaker is asking about she/he is available or not. The sentence is an interrogative sentence, since it starts with the auxiliary verb Do and ends with a question mark (?).

The next type of sentence is exclamatory sentence that usually expresses some sort of emotion, feeling or the spirit of the person who pronounces it. For example, the sentence What a lovely night!, expresses the feeling of the speaker

when he or she sees a beautiful night. It usually starts with what or how to explain what in people’s mind.

Last, imperative sentence is opposed to non-imperative ones because it is often directed to the second person and no modal verb is used. An imperative sentence drops the subject. For instance, in the sentence Open the door, please!,

the speaker gives a command or order to his addressee. It has no subject and ends with an exclamation mark because the target is certain.

b) Sentence Complexity

Morley. D. (2000: 69) declares that there are three main structures of sentence: simple, compound, and complex sentences. First, a simple sentence has one independent clause, so it only contains a subject and a verb. Second, a compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so), semicolon, or a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb (transition). The last one, complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses (dependent clauses usually begin with a subordinate conjunction such as after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while. There are the examples of simple, compound, and complex sentences below.

Table 1. Types of Sentence

No. Types of Sentence Examples

1. Simple Sentence The President flew to Camp David. subject predicate

(one subject, one predicate) 2. Compound

Sentence

The new art show opened today, and the crowd was independent clause independent clause immense.

The new art show opened today; the crowd was immense. independent clause independent clause

3. Complex Sentence When the new art show opened at the museum, the crowd dependent clause independent was immense.

clause

c) Noun Phrases

A stylistic analysis of noun phrase looks for whether the noun phrase used is simple or complex and where the complexity lies (in pre-modification by adjectives, nouns, etc. or in post-modification by prepositional phrases and relative clauses). According to David Morley (2000: 53), noun phrases are typically modified (pre-headword modification or premodifiation) or determined by an article, a genitive phrase, a pronoun, an adjective (adjectival phrase) or another noun (nominal phrase). Then, noun phrases are also followed and qualified by a prepositional phrase or subordinate clause, or in certain cases an adjective or nominal phrase, for examples: a call paper (a is determiner, call is noun, and paper is head), the color of the sea (the is determiner, color is noun, and of the sea is prepositional phrase), and mething important ( mething is head,

c. Style as Choice

In Simpson’s opinion (2004: 21), much of people’s everyday experience is shaped and defined by actions, events, thoughts and perceptions. That is why, those are important functions of the system of language that are able to report what is going on in the world. The function of the language system means to determine the grammar of the clause for capturing what people say, think and do.

As stated by Paul Simpson (2004 : 22), when language is used to represent something goings on (physical or abstract) in the world and also to represent kind of experience in spoken and written texts, it fulfils experiential function. The experiential function is an important marker of style, especially the style of narrative discourse, because it emphasises the concept of style as choice. Choices in style are motivated, even if unconsciously, choices have a deep impact on the way texts are structured and interpreted.

d. Style and Context

According to Nunan (1993: 7), context refers to the situation that creates discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded. He also explains that there are two types of context: linguistic and non-linguistic context. Linguistic context is the language that accompanies a discourse under analysis. On the other hand, the non-linguistic context is the experiential context within which the discourse takes place. It includes the type of communicative event, the topic, the purpose of the event, the setting, the participants and the relationships between them, and the background knowledge and assumptions underlying the

communicative event. Joke, story, lecture, greeting, conversation are the examples of the type of communicative event.

Talmy Givon ( 2005: 24) states that context (language use) is a notion in the language sciences (Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Discourse analysis, Pragmatics, Semiotics, etc) in two different ways, namely as verbal and social context. He says verbal context refers to surrounding text or talk of an expression (word, sentences, conversational turn, speech act, etc). However, social context is defined in terms of the objective social variables, such as class, gender or race.

As explained by Talmy Givon, both verbal and social context clearly can affect the style of language used by people. People tend to talk the way others talking in certain style, it shows that people are social human beings. For comprehend it completely, there was an example taken from Susan M and Ervin Tripp’s journal (1990 : 6).

Korean social marking in a church group in the United States [Eunsun is a 29 year old woman in charge of music

Gwangsu is a 33 year old male economist, president of the church group Gwangsu is angry at a suggestion of Eunsun and shouts. ]

Bintae : Please state -shi that as a suggestion, and.... Gwangsu : No, even after you came to the United States.... Chuhee : Let’s control our emotions -ta.

Gwangsu : No you are just...The members are expecting only to be receivers and even now, does anyone know everyone’s name? That’s impossible. Hey, you don’t do things like a game. Why should we do that?

Eunsun : I’m not talking about doing anything like a game-eyyo.

Gwangsu : No! communication is the best means of fellowship-eyyo. [stands up] {[in English] ooookay, communicate} [claps hands, stepping towards each member]

Chuhee : Please calm down-shi-eyo.

In the Korean part of the text, there are two types of marking, the verb suffix -shi and the sentence-final markers -ta and -yo. The –shi suffix is the

informal polite verb marker. When replying Chuhee, Gwangsu does not use any status markers at all. Korean speakers hear this segment as very rude indeed. It is hard to think of what would be comparable, perhaps like shouting "you idiot" at someone. The forms used in the rest of the segment are informal but deferential markers appropriate to speaking about and to people who are not intimates. After he is told by Eunsun, Gwangsu uses the appropriate sentence marker in i.e. -eyyo . The -ta form used by Chuhee is not deferential, since it concerns the first person.

The example of the conversation between the Koreans has their own style in speaking English. It happens because of context of culture. They still adopt the way to speak politely in Korean to English. Thus, context is very infleuntial for the style of language.

3. Language Deviation

Through creativity in writing his/her works, authors gave powerful effect to the readers’ thought because it is a basic need for authors to satisfy the readers. They should be innovative to build a great story. When a writer wants to make his language to be inventive, he/she uses the language different from the conventional and everyday language. Using unconventional or original language, he/she can give his readers an unexpected surprise and make a strong impression on their mind.

Leech (1969: 23) states that creative use of language is called linguistic deviation by creating an original language deviated from the norms of the literary convention or everyday speech. Moreover, Richards and Platt (1985: 79) say that deviation is a term used to describe spelling and pronunciation of a word or a

sentence structure which does not match to a norm. Deviation, which is a linguistic phenomenon, has an important psychological effect on the readers or hearers. If a part of poems is deviant, it becomes especially noticeable.

Leech (1969: 37) deals with eight different types of linguistic deviation i.e. lexical deviation, phonological deviation, graphological deviation, semantic deviation, dialectical deviation, deviation of register, deviation of historical period, and grammatical deviation. Eight types of deviation based on Leech’s classification are presented in the following.

a. Lexical Deviation

Leech (1969: 42) states that lexical deviation is usually associated with neologism, which is misunderstood as a ‘violation of lexical rule’. In neologism, an existing rule (of word-formation) is applied with greater than usual. Neologism or the invention of new ‘word’ is one of the more obvious ways in which a literary writer may surpass the normal resources of the language. New words are called as

nonce-formations, they are made up ‘for the nonce’, i.e. for a single occasion only, rather than serious attempts to increase the word-stock for some new need.

Yu Xuenyong (2010: 7) says, the innovation of lexical literary can be mostly placed in the category of nonce-formations. For example, eddianbill and

balloonman. Eddiandbill stands for Eddi and Bill. Those are the names of two little boys which have two meanings: (1) the decapitalization of the names that shows the boys are very little; (2) eddie and bill are united into one word

here is to make the hustle, bustle, and speed of the children as they come running to the call for the whistle.

b. Phonological Deviation

Leech (1969: 46) states that there are basically two types of deviation: 1) conventional licences of verse composition, 2) special pronunciation for the convenience of rhyming. For the first type of phonological deviations which is conventional licences, there are aphesis, syncope and apocope. Aphesis is the omission of an initial part of a word or phrase ‘tis. Syncope is the omission of a medial part Ne’er, o’er, pow’r. Apocope is the omission of a final part oft. For the second type which is special pronounciation, the example is the noun wind [wɪnd] as the current of air that is pronounced like the verb wind [wɪnd] as to coil or twist.

c. Graphological Deviation

There is a kind of graphological deviation which can stand by itself (independent) in speech. For example, typographical line of poetry, the typographical stanza, is a unit which is not parallel in non-poetic varieties of English: it is independent and capable of interacting with the standard units of punctuation (Leech, 1969: 47). This interaction is a special communicative resource of poetry.

Two American poets who explore possibilities of patterning in poetry are William Carlos Williams and E. E. Cummings. In Leech (1969: 47), Cummings is well known for his use of the type of orthographic deviation: abandoning the

capital letters and punctuation. For Cumming, capitalization, spacing, and punctuation become expressive devices, not a symbol to be used according to typographic.

For example: seeker of truth follow of truth all paths lead where truth is here

The example above is part of E.E cummings poem in Leech (1969: 47) to one particular use to which graphological deviation can be put. An ambiguity arises from a difference between the unit of sense indicated by lineation and syntax. According to the lineation, the poem ends with statement ‘truth is here’, but according to the syntax, ‘truth is’ must belong to the clause from the previous line “all paths lead where”, and so ‘here’ is left on its own as an exclamatory conslusion. The whole significance of the poem turns on this ambiguity, which could not happen if the poet used conventional capitalization and punctuation.

c. Semantic Deviation

In Leech’s theory (1969: 48), he explains that semantic deviation can mean ‘non-sense’ or ‘absurdity’, as long as people realize that sense is used, in this context. For example (Stephen Crane, 2005: 9), Narrator : a stone had smashed into Jimmie's mouth. Blood was bubbling over his chin and down up his ragged shirt. Tears made furrows on his dirt-stained cheeks.

In the example that is found in Maggie: A girl of the streets chapter 1, semantically or based on the meaning, it is impossible for a stone, which is a dead

thing, to be able to smash Jimmie’s mouth without any help from others, like the way Jimmie’s friend throws it to Jimmie’s face. Then, it is also impossible for tears to make furrows because tear is water that flows from human being’s eye, the logical effect is the cheeks become wet.

d. Dialectal Deviation (Dialectism)

Along with Trudgill (2000: 3), dialect is a term that is often applied to form language; mostly it is spoken in more isolated parts of the world, which have no written form. In literary works, it occurs when the writer uses words or structures which are from a dialect different from that of standard language. However, it is quite commonly used by story-tellers and comedians. For the poet, dialectism may serve a number of purposes. In his book, Leech (1968:49) also explains in Kipling’s army ballads and Hardy’s Wessex Ballads that dialectism is almost inseparable from the writer’s because it can depict life as seen through the experience. For example: heydeguyes (a type of dance) and rontes (young bullocks) in Spenser’sThe Shepheardes Calendar (1996: 57).

e. Deviation of Register

Each profession has its particular uses of language, which is known as a register. Literature as a literary profession has its own particular use of words. But modern writers have freed themselves from the limitation of poetic language. In order to pass their message they often use one or more of registers. In prose writing, register borrowing is usually accompanied by register mixing, i.e., the meeting of features that belong to different registers in the same texts (Leech,

1969). The following two lines from Auden's "Letter to Lord Byron" are examples of register deviation:

And many a bandit, not so gently born Kills vermin every winter with the Quorn

Leech (1968: 50) observes that ‘Kills vermin’ here is a singular expression because it mixes two usages: in the term of euphemism in which one refers to animals as vermin, while another interpretation of killing is as ‘keeping down’, ‘destroying’, ‘dealing with’, etc.

f. Deviation of Historical Period

In this kind of deviation, there is no limitation for writers to use ancient words or structures based on their particular period of language that are no longer used in standard language to improve the aesthetic or musical value of the literary work (Leech, 1969). Leech calls historical deviation archaism (ancient) and he defines it as "the survival of the past into the language of present time" (Leech, 1969: 52).

g. Grammatical Deviation

One of the most important things in using the language is the grammar of language. Knapp and Watkins (2005:31) state that grammar remains simply a set of rules for correctness or appropriateness. Thus, for the sake of the appropriateness, authors deviate literary language from ordinary language especially language in poetry to make it rhymed.

The term ‘deviation’ according to Raymond Chapman in Mwenda (2012: 117), is defined as linguistic usage that is considered coming from normal expectations of users of the language. This definition implies that deviation is negative because it is a violation of the rules of the grammar. This can be an obstacle for an effective communication. On the other hand, deviation in literature is a positive stylistic feature of literary works.

According to Joanna & Shang (2005:44), Grammar works on two level, they are Morphology (the grammar of the word) and Syntax (the grammar of how words pattern within sentences). Since, the focus of this study is syntactic deviations, the reseracher explained syntactic deviations deeper than morphological deviation.

1) Morphological Deviation

The term ‘deviation’ is used to describe the ways in which literary language can be said to differ from everyday language, and the researcher focuses from morphological aspect.

According to Lieber (2009: 14), morphology is the study of word formation, including the ways of how new words are invented in the languages of the world, and the way forms of words are varied depending on how they’re used in sentences.

Andrew Catairs (2002: 10) says that linguistically, morphology is a study of internal structure of the smallest gramatical unit that is called as morpheme, and formation of words. To Crystal (2003: 134), any sort of violence to the

English morphemes; i.e., "ill-formed morphemes", is referred to as a deviant morphological construction.

Actually, there are two researchers who analysed morphological deviations; Basheer Matrood and Masanori Miyata. Though, both of them have the same idea of morphological deviations, thus the researcher summarizes it to complete each other. Therefore, they conclude that there are six kinds of morphological deviations, they are adverb ending in –s, confusion of affixation, comparison of adjective, adjective used adverbially, conversion of verbs, and conversion of function words.

2) Syntactic Deviations

According to Miller, J (2002: 12), syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the interrelationships among their component. Syntax deals with how words are put together to build phrases, how phrases are put together to build clauses or bigger phrases, and how clauses are put together to build sentences.

According to Thoms, G. (2010: 31), to give a descriptive overview of types of syntactic deviations that are found in poetic language in English, he divides the kinds of deviation into several parts.

a) Type of Syntactic Deviations (1) PP Displacement

Preposition phrases (PPs) have a wide distribution in English. PPs can give informations to the reader about place, time, position of things, etc. In poetry, authors often displaces PPs to make the poems rymed, metred, or to be artistic (Thoms, G., 2010: 22).

Table 2. Examples of PP Displacement.

No. Examples of PP Displacement Author

1. Children in the street Watch him go by.

“Is that the thinnest shadow?”

They to one another cry.

By:John Ashbery, ‘The Thinnest Shadow’

2. one, the smallest, to the water goes.

By:Robert Creeley, ‘Beach’

The two examples are taken from John Asbery’s collected poems (2008) and the collected poems of Robert Creeley (2006). They are interesting because there is a displacement between preposition and verb. Both of examples have a S(ubject)-PP-V(erb) pattern, and obviously the result from the displacement of a PP from a standard S-V-PP one. This PP displacement occurs in many other configurations in poetic texts.

(2) NP Displacement

Thoms, G. (2010: 35) states that the distribution of noun phrases or NPs is different from PPs, and the specifics of Np distribution are tied to certain aspects of their semantic interpretation in a certain sentence.

Table 3. Examples of NP Displacement.

No. Examples of NP Displacement Author

1. Can’t myself

let off this

fiction. “You don’t exist.

Robert Creeley, ‘Echo of ’

2. Baby, you’re

dead.” Robert Creeley, ‘Echo of

Both of the examples are also taken from the collected poems of Robert Creeley (2006). Obviously, Nps are placed in wrong position and as what Thoms, G. said that this Np distribution can affect the meaning of the sentence semantically. In example no.1, the structure of the sentnce should be S+Aux+V+O, but that sentence switch the object (as Np) myself with the verb let. This part of poem is quite interesting because Robert does not write that way because of the rhyme. In example no. 2, since Thoms, G. (2010: 39) categorised it into Np displacement, so the sentence should be you’re dead baby which means that the speaker is saying to someone that he/she is already dead; it might be a physically or mentally dead. However, the expression can also mean that the persona is addressing to somebody close to him.

(3) AP Displacement

According to Thoms, G. (2010: 49), adjectival phrases (APs) have more restricted distributions than NPs and PPs, and there are fewer operations for moving APs than for NPs and PPs.

Table 4. Examples of AP Displacement.

No. Examples of AP Displacement Author

1. In the apartment fallen

The tree began to take root.

John Ashbery, ‘To The Same Degree’

2. It is the surface black which attacks

the shape,

Bending it to its present uses.

John Ashbery, ‘The Thousand Islands’

Through example no.1, it is acceptable to interpret fallen as a modifier of the tree where the tree has just fallen, even though the reality of a tree taking root after it has fallen is somewhat strange. The deviation in those examples is seen through Aps displacement, fallen and black which somehow can make ambigous interpretation, especially in the word fallen. The sentence should be In the apartment, the fallen tree began to take root and It is the black surface which attacks the shape, bending it to its present uses.

(4) Adverb Displacement

Thoms, G. (2010: 57) states that it often happens that adverbs are restricted to appear in specific positions related to other elements in a sentence. This adverb displacement also happens in many poems.

Table 5. Examples of Adverb Displacement.

No. Examples of Adverb Displacement Author

1. Some secret truths, from Learned Pride

conceal’d,

To Maidsalone and Childrenare reveal’d:

‘The Rape of the Lock’

by Alexander Pope, in Pope (1966: 88-109)

2. With tender Billet-doux he lights the pyre,

And breathes three am’rous sighs to raise the

fire.

Then prostrate falls, and begs with ardent eyes

Soon to obtain, and long possess the prize.

‘The Rape of the Lock’

by Alexander Pope, in Pope (1966: 88-109)

In (1), the adverb alone appears in the wrong place because it is put nearby Maids. However, it should be put after the word reveal’d as alone should explain how maids and children revealed. Therefore, it seems that the adverb has been displaced from its natural position to the right of Children. In structural terms, the sentences should be Some secret truths, from Learned Pride conceal’d, To Maids and Children are reveal’d alone:

In (2), the adverb soon appears in a position coming first from to infinitive, but the adverb is interpreted as if it is modifying the verb obtain, and in such cases, it should appear between to and obtain. The sentence is quite confusing because both obtain and possess share the object prize, but it seems clear that soon only modifies obtain.

(5) Subject Displacement

According to Thoms, G. (2010: 60), this kind of displacement has been analysed and assumed that it happens in poetry constantly. However, there are

also examples where the subject itself has been displaced from its standard sentence-initial position to some other position.

Table 6. Examples of Subject Displacement.

No. Examples of Subject Displacement Author

1. Already see you a degraded Toast,

And all your Honour in a Whisper lost!

‘The Rape of the Lock’

by Alexander Pope, in Pope (1966: 88-109)

2. And out over the park where crawled roadsters

The apricot and purple clouds were

And our blood flowed down the grating [. . . ]

John Ashbery, ‘Two Sonnets’ (1997: 71) (originally appeared in The Tennis

Court Oath).

In (1), the subject you appears to the right of the verb see; it indicates that the subject has been displaced rightward. The sentence should be You already see a degraded Toast, and all your honour in a Whisper lost! (ln 2). The example no.2 has a similar case with no.1 in which the subject displacement is also in the rightward, so roadsters should be moved after the word where as the normal structure of that sentence is Adv of place+Aux+S+V+O/C. Moreover, according to Leech (2010) and Miyata (2007: 12), multiple negation, inversion, and enumeration are also kinds of syntactic deviation.

(6) Multiple Negation

According to Leech (in Sadoon, 2010: 6), the most obvious examples of grammatical deviations are where a poet or a writer uses the double negative, the double comparative and the double superlative. In Old and Middle English, the

idea of negation was often expressed several times a single sentence, as in the following example :

" I will never do nothing no more " (Brook, 1977:146).

Sadoon, M. (2010: 6) also conclude that writers or poets deviate from grammatical rules by combining two ways of expressing comparison: the addition of suffixes and the use of the separate words (more) and (most).

(7) Inversion

Anne Breadstreet (2010: 5) states that inversion is often used to make a poem’s rhyme to maintain fixed meter. For example,

In silent night when rest I took For sorrow near I did not look I wakened was with thund’ring noise And piteous shrieks of dreadful voice

That poem is written by Anne Breadstrees (July,1966), and it shows clearly that it contains inversion in the last part of each line to make it rhymed. In standard structure, the sentence should be “ In silent night when I took rest, sorrow near I did not look for.” I was wakened with thund’ring noise and piteous shrieks of dreadful voice”.

b) Author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

According to Langston Hughes Poems: Study Guide (1994), he made a study guide to make the readers easily understand what his poems tell about. He categorized it into several topics as like general them the poems. They are:

(1) to show jazz music that express as sorrow and loneliness, (2) to portray American dream,

(3) to show African-American’s struggle, (4) to depict racism in America,

(5) to face difficulty wisely, (6) to show self-actualization, and

(7) to show the other problems faced by African-American. Those topics became the second objective of this study to see the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

4. Standard English and Non-Standard English

There are many definitions of standard English. According to Guth and Schuster (1970: 198), standard English is the language that is used in formal places and situations i.e. school, university, office, law, business, and government. Moreover, Hornby (1987: 285) says that standard English is language only used by king, queen and educated people. Along with Trudgill (1983: 18), standard English is usully taught in school and to non-native speakers who learn the language.

Then, he also confirms that standard English has arranged the standard rules for grammar and vocabulary and it has been accepted. Those definitions lead to a conclusion that standard English is one of varieties of English which has accepted vocabulary and grammar and it is normally used in schools and in formal circumstances such as government and institutions.

Finch (2000: 211) states that as a variety of English, standard English is claimed not as a dialect since it has a national status and non-regional characters. It means that standard English in every country has the same characters i.e. pronounciation, spelling, vocabulary, and syntax.

Standard English is always contrasted to non-standard English. The difference between the two are easily noticed. Some examples below are the features of non-standard english (Guth and Schuster in Supriyadi, 1970: 25) : a. Verb forms : he don’t, you was, I seen

b. Pronoun forms : hisslef, theirself

c. Connectives : without he pays the rent, an account of she was sick d. Double negatives : we don’t have no time, never hurt nobody

e. Vocabulary : nowhereas, nohow

In summary, Standard English is a kind of English which is normally used in formal settings. The differences between standard English and non-standard English are easily noticed because the former has arranged the standard rule for grammar, vocabulary, and spelling which are usually put in dictionaries. Since there is standard English, there is also non-standard English. Guth and Schuster (1970: 198) say that most of Americans speak non-standard English at home and

in the office. The vocabulary and grammar between standard Englsih and non-standard english are the same but different in the forms and constructions that are used in daily speech.

5. African-American Vernacular English

African-American vernacular English is also called as Black English, ebonics, etc. According to Jirka (2006: 1), Black English appears among slaves in the southern colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries, and moved to northern cities during migrations beginning in the early 20th century. Then, some experts say that Black English is also related to pidgin and creole.

Holmes (2001: 81) states that a pidgin is a language which has no native speakers and it develops as a mean of communication between two people or more who do not have common language. A pidgin that has acquaired native speaker is called as creole (Holmes, 2001: 86). In other words, a creole is a pidgin that has been learned by children as their first language and used in a wide range of field.

Strevers (1978: 38) explains that negro slaves in the USA used dialect as a secret language. Holmes (2001: 93) confirms that the dialect developed its origin from plantation Creole. Furthermore, Bollinger and Sears (1981: 98) say that Black English has its historical basis on the African pidgin in the slave trade.

There are also some experts who say that Black English is a decreolized dialect since Black English has its roots in the different language (Trans-Atlantic) but need to communicate with each other as well as their defeater. Thus, some

pidgins became a fully developed creole language (Jirka, 2006: 8). He states that Black English started as a Creole. Therefore, it still has the quality of a Creole. Even though it had been modified to resemble the standard American English, it would always appear differently. That conclusion implies that there are differences between English spoken by whites and by blacks in the USA. However, the differnces are not always seen wisely as Trudgill (1983: 153) states that English spoken by African-American was often considered to be lowered and it was the deviation of standard English.

6. Langston Hughes and The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes a. Langston Hughes

Hughes’ family background is an important thing to be disccussed because it affects what he writes in his collected poem since family is the first place he lives with and everything he experinces and feels, and he pours it into his poems. As we can see, Langston’s skin is black and it identifies him as a black American. However, actually his great-grandfather from his father is a white slave and his maternal grandmother named Marry Patterson is a mixed race which is African-American, French, England, and native American. Thus, it is why he gets two-raced blood (white and black).

Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri. His mother is Mercer Langston and his father is James Nathaniel Hughes. They lived in a small town in Midwestern, but then his parents decided to divorce. He was raised by his maternal grandmother, Marry Patterson Langston in Lawrence, Kansas. He spent

most of his childhood in Lawrence. After his grandmother died, he lived with family friends for two years. Then, he lived with his mother who married again in Ohio.

He grew up and studied in Lincoln University, a historically black university in Pennsylvania. Then, he started to write collected poems there. In short, he died in May 22, 1967 from complications after abdominal surgery, related to prostate cancer, at the age of 65. His ashes are put in the Schomburg Center for research in Black Culture in Harlem, and the entrance to an ausitorium is his name.

b. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes

James Mercer Langston Hughes was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and comunist. He composes 868 poems and divided them into five decades. He was one of the earliest innovators of the new literary art called jazz poetry. He is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance. “The Negro was in vogue” is a famous period he writes that was paraphrased as “When Harlem was in vogue”.

All his poems are arranged in order and edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel. All of the poems (860) were published by the writer during his lifetime based on the date and place of publication for each poem. He is best known for his poems about African life, and he was also a political poet who was paid for radical views.

This poem was written at the time of Harlem Renaissance where it was the name given to the cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem,

New York. During the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement”. At that time, jazz poetry is very popular because it demonstrated jazz-like rhythm or the feel of improvisation. Thus, Langston Hughes wrote his poems related to song or dance because it depicted the era where whites and blacks enjoy jazz music that had a soft, slow, and easy rhythm to listen. Whites usually listened to the jazz song and they danced accompanied by African-American who played the banjo.

Moreover, this poet used terms and names related to the slavery era, e.g. cotton field, mulatto, Eliza, Alfred, etc. Those terms and names depicted racism condition at that time. Cotton field portrayed where African-American spent their most of time when they became the slaves of whites. Then, mulatto is a term that means the first-generation offspring of a black person and a white person. Furthermore, Eliza is a name for a girl that taken from Eliza Moore who was one of the last proven African-American former slaves living in the United States. Alfred is the one of the last living survivors of slavery in the United States who had a clear recollection of it. The use of terms and names in The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes helped the researcher and the readers understand the condition of African-American’s life at that time.

7. Related Studies

The researcher admits that this research is rarely discussed especially this topic, grammatical deviation. Morover, there are two previous researches in the form of journal related to the topic of deviation. However, it does not mean that

they are exactly the same. This is because each research has its own distinctive focus and methodology.

1. “Types of Linguistic Deviation in Oliver Twist’ by Masanori Miyata (2007). This research is in the form of journal. In his research, firstly he describes linguistic deviation and foregrounding. Then, he explained each types of linguistic deviation completely as well as the kinds of each type, e.g. neologism, compounding, slank, coinage, etc which are the kinds of lexical deviation. Masanori Miyata analyzed Oliver Twist using 8 elements of lingustic deviation. Since this research only focuses on examining syntactic deviations in the collected poems of Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel, it produced a different result. “Morphological Deviation as Stylistic Marker in E. E. Cummings Poetry” by Sami Basheer Matrood.

2. Linguistics Deviation in Dicken’s Hard Time by Mustapha Daddi Ouameur (2013). In his research he analyzes eight classifications of linguistic deviation based on Leech in Hard Times and also explains foregrounding and parallelism. The researcher describes all the types of linguistics deviation in general and investigaes the effects of Dickens’ use of language deviation from linguistic norms of literary conventions.

The objective, Hard Times is a famous novel published in Victorian era. Victorian novels were vehicle which writers used to deliver social criticism. Thus, it is used to satirize the England condition at that time. Mustapha shows that various uses of Linguistic Deviation help Dickens to describe his

characters, and to show their social classes; therefore, it depicts the bitter reality of the Industrial town as well as representing a full picture of Coketown to the readers.

3. Blooms Critical Views of Langston Hughes’ Poem by Harold Bloom (2007). This research is about Bloom’s critics towards Langston Hughes’ poem entitled “Fine clothes to the Jew”, Intracaste Prejudice in “Mulatto”, Do Right to Write Right: Langston Hughes’s Aesthetics of Simplicity, and Jazz poetry. This research dealt with literature analysis which also used literature theory to analyzed Langston Hughes’ poem. This research has no relevance to the linguistic study but it can help the researcher understand some Langston Hughes’ poems.

B.Conceptual Framework and Analytical Construct 1. Conceptual Framework

This research studies the phenomenon of deviation of language that occurs in literary works, especially poems. The object of this research is The Collected Poem of Langston Hughes that sounds the heartbeat of black life in America during five decades from 1920s to 1960s. Langston Hughes’ collected poems are examined using stylistic approach.

Stylistics is defined as a field of study that explores the language used in literary works. This becomes the appropriate approach to use since this research indeed focuses on how language is maintained in the research objects. In this study, the researcher focuses to describe the language used by the author. Thus,

this study starts the explanation from the combination of linguistics and literary works that can be understood through stylistics. Stylistics is the bridge that is used to analyze the style of language of the author.

In the analysis of the language style in this poetry, there are two elements composing a text that must be considered i.e. linguistic and stylistic categories.

The linguistic categories cover lexical categories, such as nouns, adverbs, and adjectives, and grammatical categories like sentence types, clauses, and sentence complexities. Stylistic categories cover the areas of linguistic deviation that is divided into eight types, but the researcher only focuses on grammatical deviation that consists of two categories i.e. morphological and syntactic deviation. However, the researcher decided to examine only syntactic deviations because the limitation of data.

There are two objectives in this research: to identify the types and to describe the functions of syntactic deviations in the Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. To answer the first question the researcher used Leech theory explores by Gary Steward Thoms, G. (2010). He classified syntactic deviations into five categories: preposition phrases displacement, noun phrases displacement, adjective phrases displacement, adverb displacement, and subject displacement. In addition, she also used theory of Miyata (2007) to complete the types of deviation; they are multiple negation and inversion.

To answer the second question, the researcher uses Langston Hughes Poems Study Guide. He writes it himself to make readers understand his poems easily. He wants to critize racial discrimination and the social condition at that time

especially reveals the African American life. Then, the researcher read the study guide and she also had to look up the meaning and understand the selected poems that contain the syntactic deviations. Hence, they become the focus of this research to analyze the purposes of the author wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

Figure 2: Analytical Construct P O E T I C U T T E R A N C E S

THE COLLECTED POEM OF LANGSTON HUGHES

STYLISTICS

LITERARY WORKS

DEVIATING LANGUAGE DEVIATION

1921-1930 1931-1940 1951-1960 1961-1967 1941-1950 DIALECTICAL REGISTER HISTORICAL PERIOD GRAMMATICAL

A Stylistic Analysis of Syntactic Deviation in the Collected Poems of

Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad & David Roessel

MORPHOLOGICAL SYNTACTIC TYPES PP Displacement NP Displacement AP Displacement Adverb Displacement Subject Displacement Multiple Negation Inversion

TO SHOW JAZZ MUSIC THAT EXPRESS SORROW AND

LONELINESS

TO PORTRAY AMERICAN’S DREAM

TO SHOW AFRICAN-AMERICAN’S STRUGGLE

TO DEPICT RACISM IN AMERICA

TO FACE DIFFICULTY WISELY

TO SHOW SELF-ACTUALIZATION OTHERS FUNCTIONS P O E T I C U T T E R A N C E S

THE COLLECTED POEM OF LANGSTON HUGHES

STYLISTICS

LITERARY WORKS

DEVIATING LANGUAGE DEVIATION

1921-1930 1931-1940 1951-1960 1961-1967 1941-1950 DIALECTICAL REGISTER HISTORICAL PERIOD GRAMMATICAL

A Stylistic Analysis of Syntactic Deviation in The Collected Poems of

Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad & David Roessel

MORPHOLOGICAL SYNTACTIC TYPES PP Displacement NP Displacement AP Displacement Adverb Displacement Subject Displacement Multiple Negation Inversion

TO SHOW JAZZ MUSIC THAT EXPRESS SORROW AND

LONELINESS

TO PORTRAY AMERICAN’S DREAM

TO SHOW AFRICAN-AMERICAN’S STRUGGLE

TO DEPICT RACISM IN AMERICA

TO FACE DIFFICULTY WISELY

TO SHOW SELF-ACTUALIZATION

OTHERS AUTHOR’S PURPOSES

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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the research method and is divided into five parts: research type, data and source of data, research instrument, research procedures, and trustworthiness.

A. Research Type

Qualitative research was applied in this study. According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 7), they state that narrative or textual descriptions of the phenomena under studies is produced by qualitative research. Moreover, Bogdan (in Stainback,1988) states that qualitative research has the natural setting as the direct source of the data. He states that in the descriptive qualitative research the collected data are in the form of words rather than numbers.

This research used stylistic analysis to reveal the phenomenon of syntactic deviations and the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations. In general, the study tried to describe the phenomena of syntactic deviations that occurs in Langston Hughes’ poems as richly as possible in the form of description for a better understanding.

B. Data and Source of Data

Since the object was a collection of poems which contain poetic utterances and the research applied qualitative research, the data description would be produced in the form of text. The data were utterances in the form of phrases, and sentences that contain syntactic deviation. Then, the data source was The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel. It was published in 1994 in New York.

C. Research Instruments

Bogdan and Biklen (1928:4) say that qualitative research has an actual setting at the direct source of data and the researcher is the primary instrument (the researcher has the main role for collecting data). She was involved in all of the process of the observation, analysis, and interpretation the data. Thus, the researcher was the main data collection instrument in this phenomenological research.

The secondary instrument of this research was data sheet. Data sheet was used to classify the data that can be the clue for analyzing syntactic deviation represented in the collected poems of Langstion Hughes. The format of the data sheet is illustrated in Table 07 below.

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List of abbreviations :

03/MN/01 : number of poem/type of syntactic deviations/number of chapter

1 : Preposition phrases a : to show jazz music that express sorrow and loneliness

2 : Noun phrases or NPs b : to portray American’s dreams

3 : Adjectival phrases (APs) c : to show African-American’s struggle

4 : Adverb displacement d : to depict racism in America

5 : Subject displacement e : to face difficulty wisely

6 : Multiple negation f : to show self-actualization

7 : Inversion g : to show the other problems faced by African-American

NO. CODE DATA CONTEXT TYPES OF SYNTACTIC

DEVIATION

AUTHOR’S PURPOSES USING

SYNTACTIC DEVIATIONS _EXPLANATION

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a b c d e f g

1. 06/MN/03 Looks like what drives me crazy

Don't have no effect on you

The poem entitled

‘Evil’. It tells about

evil intent since nobody cares about what he went trough.

√ √ Multiple negation is marked by

two words i.e. don’t and no. In

standard rule, for negative sentence, there must be only one of them because using both

of them means it becomes positive sentence

and maybe was I blind I could not see

and would not know you're gone so long so long.

47. 60/SD/04 Deferred

This year, maybe, do you think I can graduate? I'm already two years late.

Dropped out six months when I was seven, a year when I was eleven,

then got put back when we come North. To get through high at twenty's kind of late— But maybe this year I can graduate.

Maybe now I can have that white enamel stove I dreamed about when we first fell in love eighteen years ago.

But you know,

rooming and everything then kids,

cold-water flat and all that. But now my daughter's married And my boy's most grown — quit school to work—

and where we're moving there ain't no stove —

Maybe I can buy that white enamel stove! Me, I always did want to study French. It don't make sense—

I'll never go to France,

but night schools teach French. Now at last I've got a job where I get off at five, in time to wash and dress,

so, s'il vous plait, I'll study French! Someday,

I'm gonna buy two new suits at once!

All I want is

one more bottle of gin. All I want is to see my furniture paid for. All 1 want is a wife who will

work with me and not against me. Say, baby, could you see your way clear? Heaven, heaven, is my home! This world I'll leave behind When I set my feet in glory I'll have a throne for mine! I want to pass the civil service.

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I want a television set. You know, as old as I am, I ain't never

owned a decent radio yet? I'd like to take up Bach. Montage

of a dream deferred.

Buddy, have you heard?

48 73/SD/04 Dime

Chile, these steps is hard to climb. Grandma, lend me a dime. Montage of a dream deferred: Grandma acts like

She ain't heard.

Chile, Granny ain't got no dime. I might've knowed

It all the time.

49. 74/SD/04 Argument

White is right, Yellow mellow, Black, get back!

Do you believe that, Jack? Sure do!

Then you're a dope

for which there ain't no hope. Black is fine!

And, God knows, It's mine!

50. 76/SD/04 Evening Song

A woman standing in the doorway Trying to make her where-with-all: Come here, baby, darlin'l

Don't you hear me call? If I was anybody's sister,

I'd tell her, Gimme a place to sleep. But I ain't nobody's sister.

I'm just a poor lost sheep. Mary, Mary, Mary, Had a little lamb.

Well, I hope that lamb of Mary's Don't turn out like I am.

51. 93/SD/04 Hero-International Brigade Blood,

Or a flag, Or a flame Or life itself Are they the same: Our dream? I came.

An ocean in-between And half a continent. Frontiers,

And mountains skyline tall,

And governments that told me NO, YOU CANNOT GO!

I came.

On tomorrow's bright frontiers I placed the strength and wisdom Of my years.

Not much, For I am young. (Was young,

Perhaps it's better said — For now I'm dead.)

But had I lived four score and ten Life could not've had

A better end.

I've given what I wished And what I had to give That others live. And when the bullets Cut my heart away, And the blood Gushed to my throat I wondered if it were blood Gushing there.

Or a red flame? Or just my death Turned into life? They're all the same: Our dream!

My death! Your life! Our blood! One flame!

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52. 193/SD/04 Casual

Death don't ring no doorbells. Death don't knock.

Death don't bother to open no doors, Just comes on through the walls like TV, Like King Cole on the radio, cool. . . . Next thing you know, Death's there. You don't know where Death came from: Death just comes in