Problem Formulation Research Goals

Table 2.1 Design Features of Human Language Ingredient Design Feature Users Specialized Interchangeable Sensitive to feedback Interactive Message Meaningful Productive Displaced from the here and now Code Discrete Arbitrary Hierarchical Signal Modality-specific One-to-many broadcast Directional reception Rapid fading Source: Burton et al. 2012:22 The first ingredient is as users a sender and a receiver with four design features, namely specialized, interchangeable, sensitive to feedback, and interactive. Being specialized means that users use speech specialized for communication, like the lungs and the vocal tract. Being interchangeable means that users are able to send and receive messages. Being sensitive to feedback means that users monitor and adjust their production as needed. Being interactive means that users learn the use of language by interacting with other users. The second ingredient is a message that needs to be meaningful, productive, and displaced from the here and now. Having meaningful message can specify meaning of the language use as the design feature of semanticity. Being productive means creating new messages since the human ability has to do with the ability to generate new descriptions and give new information. Therefore, this ability deals with the design feature of productivity. Being displaced from the here and now, as the design feature of displacement, means talking about things located elsewhere in time and space. The third ingredient is a code that can change the form of a message. This code has three design features, namely discrete, arbitrary, and hierarchical. Discrete code refers to messages consisting of smaller parts words, syllables, or individual sounds. Arbitrary means no intrinsic connection needed between the signal and the meaning it conveys. Hierarchical refers to a combination of small units to become larger units sounds, syllables, words, phrases, sentences, discourse. The fourth ingredient is a signal that is needed to transmit a physical signal, like sound, sight, or touch. The signal has four design features: modality-specific, one-to-many broadcast, directional reception, and rapid fading. Modality-specific shows that spoken language uses the airways to produce acoustic and visual signals supported by hand gestures and facial gestures. One-to-many broadcast shows that a sender might broadcast speech signals to many receivers at the same time, like giving a speech or broadcasting. Directional reception shows that perceivers identify speech signals as coming from a single direction and source. Rapid fading shows that speech signals disappear as soon as the signals are produced. The explanation above shows that those four ingredients and design features of human language need to be considered in a communication. It is assumed that those can make communication work well. Therefore, in communication, people need to focus on senders speakers and receivers listeners, formulate the messages, design an efficient language code, and work with the signals.