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2.3. Message Framing
Message framing theory describes how a persuasive message is delivered to the recipient of the message. In
communication process, persuasive messages can be presented in a positive framed message gain framed
message that emphasize aspects of the benefits that would be obtained if the message is obeyed, or in a
negative message framing loss framed messages which emphasizes the aspect of risk that would occur if
the message is not obeyed. So, there are two types of message framing. The first type is the negative framed
message and the second type is positive framed message.
2.4. The Effects of Message Framing on Persuasion
The dependent variable that is widely used in the model of message framing is persuasion OKeefe and Jensen,
2006. The variables in the message that affect persuasion generally work by giving instructions or
arguments, creates a bias in the processing of information and determining the amount of elaboration
involved to the message Petty et al., 1997. The occurrence of persuasion also can be caused by several
things related to the source of the message, the message characteristics and the characteristics of the message
recipient. One source of the persuasion that is caused by the characteristics of the message is the presentation of
the message in the form of message framing Olson and Zanna, 1993. Information processing when a person
receives a message in the framed message associated with psychological processes that people use to test the
information, make decisions and draw conclusions about the world around them. According Hallahan
1999, framing works by creating a bias in the cognitive processing of information by individuals.
2.5. Differential Effects of Positive and Negative
Framed Messages on Persuasion
Based on the literatures review Fatmawati, 2012, research on message framing is mostly perform in
health behavior context, consumer behavior and risky decisions. Message framing research in energy
conservation context carried by Gonzales et al. 1988 with a quasi-experimental design. Research by
laboratory experiments design conducted Davis 1995 in environmentally friendly behavior 3R reduce, reuse
and recycle context. In health behavior area, research on message framing is performed in an effort to
encourage disease detection and prevention behavior.
In health and consumer behavior context, there is a tendency of negative compare to positive framed
message effectiveness. However, overally, results of the previous research in message fraing is still inconclusive
Donovan and Jalleh, 1999; Cox et al., 2006; Chang, 2007. In energy conservation area Gonzales et al.
1988 and in environmental friendly behavior including recycling, conservation and green behavior area Davis,
1995. research findings on message framing support for the effectiveness of the negative framed message.
The advantages of persuasion power of negative message framing can be explained by Tversky and
Kahnemans opinion 1981 which states that basically people do not like the lossrisk when considering the
results or benefits, but more like the risk when considering the loss or expense. Thus, when the output
is presented in a negative frame emphasis on lossrisk that will occur they prefer a more risky option. This
opinion is based on the findings of Kahneman and Tversky classic experiment 1979 about the deadly
fatal disease. Kahneman and Tverskys experiments have repeatedly replicated on different subjects.
The advantage persuasion power of negative message framing can also be explained by the results of the
research that indicate negative information is more effective than positive information because of some
information asymmetry between positive and negative information. The first asymmetry stated that the
negative information usually has a disproportionate influence on decisions than equivalent positive
information. The second asymmetry explains that negative stimuli more easily recognizable. Research
shows negative stimuli can be detected at lower exposure levels than positive one.
Research findings on message framing also enriched with the support for positive framed message
effectiveness such as study of Levin and Gaeth 1988, Maheswaran and Meyers-Levy 1990, Diamond and
Sanyal 1990, Rothman et al. 1993, Block and Keller 1995, Smith 1996 and Donovan and Jalleh 1999.
Investigation on previous studies showed that the effectiveness of positive message framing is happen on
on low-risk actions eg, detection of cholesterol in subjects with low levels of involvement in the study
Maheswaran and Meyers-Levy or preventive action context Rothman and Salovey , 1997. These findings
are consistent with Kahneman and Tversky opinion 1979 which states that individuals tend to avoid risk
when faced with problems that are presented within the positive framed message.
2.6. Need For Cognition
NFC is an individual tendency to get involved and enjoy cognitive thinking activities Cacioppo et al., 1984;
Petty and Cacioppo, 1984. NFC distinguish individuals within their possibilities to perform in depth cognitive
processing, so it can be an important determinant in the process of message elaboration Mongeau, 1989.
Cohen 1955 states that, NFC is a stable individual
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differences in cognitive motivation to perform and enjoy the cognitive activities. Research on NFC stated, these
characteristics relate to the way a person faces tasks and social information he receives Cacioppo et al., 1984.
NFC is a scale measuring individual differences tendency to perform elaborative thinking Tanaka et al.,
1988. NFC measurement scale was originally developed by Cacioppo et al. 1984 in the 34 items
measurement. During its development, Cacioppo et al. 1984 then developed a more efficient measurement in
the 18-item scale.
2.7. The Moderating Effects of Need For Cognition
on The Effects of Framed Message on Attitude Change
Review on previous studies of NFC interaction effects related to framed message presentation showed the
presence of significant interaction effects. But there is different form of which NFC is have stronger effect on
framed message persuasion effect. Cohen, Scotland and Wolfe et al. 1955 showed that, person with high NFC
evaluate
communication more
comprehensively compared to person with low NFC. Zhang and Buda
1999 state that, NFC affect the strength of the message that is presented in framed message. However, this
finding is still inconclusive. The findings of several subsequent studies tend to support the findings of Buda
and Zhang 1999 on the effect of NFC interaction with message framing. Chatterjee et al. 2000 found no
interaction effect of low NFC on message framing. Similar findings obtained Buda and Charnov 2003 in a
study of the influence of recruitment with the preview information.
Cacioppo and Petty 1984 explains, person with high NFC obtain the intrinsic value of gathering information
and getting pleasure from advertising message that is mentally stimulating. Such individuals have cognitive
structures that develop much better that help interpret and classify information. LeBoeuf and Shafir 2003
also states that, subject with high NFC is more consistent in responding to the message that is presented
in framed message.
Although inconclusive, empirical evidence of the emergence of differences in message framing effects
due to differences in individual motivation to process these messages indicate a psychological process that
occurs when consumers respond to a message that is presented in framed message. The difference in
psychological process is determined at least by their intrinsic motivation to process the message, which is
indicated by each individual NFC. Studies on the effect of NFC also showed, individuals with low NFC rely
more on information from others, thinking heuristics or social comparison to understand the message. They are
more likely to shape attitudes using simple instructions like attractiveness of the message, expertise of the
message source or the number of arguments, rather than the quality of the argument itself. They also tend to
avoid the activity of searching for information and are fully involved through the thinking process. Meanwhile,
individuals with high NFC tend to be more rigorous in evaluating the message and more interested in the
central directives as the content of the message Petty and Cacioppo, 1996.
2.8. The Mediating Effects of Intention on Attitude