Educational Research and Development RD

learners to develop in their own direction”. Moreover, an instruction which is used in the learning process should be planned in an organized way. Gagne and Briggs 1979:5 add that instructional design should be conducted by the process of a system approach. There are various kinds of approaches which are used to design a set of instruction. One of them is Yalden’s instructional design model. Yalden 1987:88-89 proposes eight stages in developing language program. The stages are: a. Need Survey The first step is conducting need survey. Need survey is used to obtain information about the learners as much as possible before developing the program and to decide appropriate objectives of the program Yalden, 1987:101. b. Description of purposes The second step is clarifying the objectives description of the program. In preparing the objectives description, the program designer will work in terms of broad and narrow focused purposes, and occupational or educational purposes. Yalden 1987:105 argues that this step is the basis for the major decision of designing language program. c. Selection development of syllabus type The third step is choosing the syllabus types. There are several kinds of communicative syllabus which can be chosen based on the learners’ or language programs’ objectives. d. Production of proto syllabus The fourth step is producing the Porto-syllabus. According to Yalden 1987, in this stage, the designer will work on the content description or content specification of the syllabus. Moreover, the work of the content description includes describing the language and language use that would be covered in the program Yalden, 1987: 138-141. e. Production of pedagogical syllabus The fifth step is producing the pedagogical syllabus. This step includes development of teaching materials, testing sequence and testing instrument which are used in the program Yalden, 1987:89. Yalden 1987 states that the pedagogical syllabus provides a list of words and phrases that are appropriate with the topics needed by the learners. Furthermore, the words and phrases are also selected as models of function in the language program Yalden 1987: 144. f. Development and implementation of classroom procedures According to Yalden 1987:89, this step includes selecting exercise types and teaching techniques, preparing the lesson plans and weekly schedule, and also briefing for teachers. g. Evaluation The seventh step is evaluating the program. The evaluation of the program can be obtained from the students, the program itself, and the teaching process Yalden, 1987:89. Yalden’s model is described in the figure at the next page. Need survey Description of purposes Selection development of syllabus type Production of proto syllabus Development and implementation of classroom procedures Evaluation Production of pedagogical syllabus Figure 2.1: Language Program Development Yalden, 1987:88 In this study, the writer applies Yalden’s instructional design model in designing the listening materials. The writers would use each step of Yaldens’s model in the process of designing and developing listening materials.

3. Syllabus Design

According to Krahnke 1987:73, syllabus is the base for the organization of language courses. Furthermore, he divides six types of syllabus that are classified according to their characteristics, differences, strengths and weaknesses. The six types of syllabus are Structural Syllabus, Functional Syllabus, Situational Syllabus, Skill-based Syllabus, Task-Based Syllabus, and Content-based Syllabus. The following parts would elaborate factors affecting syllabus choice and design and also one type of syllabus which used in this study that is functional syllabus.

a. Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

The three major factors that influence the syllabus choice and design are Program factors, Teachers factors, and Students factors. Each factor would be described at the next page: 1 Program factors There are three dominant program factors that affected syllabus choice. The first factor is the goal and objective of the program Krahnke, 1987:74-75. The types of instructional contents should be most closely matched with the goals of the program. The second factor is instructional resources that are available for the program Krahnke, 1987:76. The resources include many aspects like textbooks, visual materials, realia, radio or television program, films, etc. The third factor is the need to make the instruction accountable to be measured by external measures tools such as tests Krahnke, 1987:77. Due to this factor, some instructional programs often teach particular kind of knowledge that will be tested, although students did not really need it. 2 Teacher factors Krahnke 1987:78 says that with their system and orientation, teachers play a role in deciding the content of language instruction to be used in a program. Teachers also have great influence on the actual learning process in the classroom. Dealing with this factor, it is expected that teachers are able to accept the type of instruction they have chosen before they carry out it Krahnke, 1987:79. 3 Student factors Students also affect the choice of instructional program. The major influences are the goals of the students, students’ experience and expectations, students’ prior knowledge, students’ social and personality types, and the number of student in a class Krahnke, 1987:79.