Designing a set of reading materials using constructivist learning for languange program students year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta.

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Kurniasari, Monika. 2008. Designing A Set of Reading Materials Using Constructivist Learning for Language Program students Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

The Language Program students Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta were demanded to have fluent English. It was because Language Program is a specific program in Senior High School which studies about languages. By the end of the Senior High School Year XII, the students will meet the National Exam. In the National Exam, there will be reading test items. Hence, readingis one of the important factors in learning English for Senior High School students. Considering the phenomenon, the writer designed a set of English instructional reading materials for Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta. Constructivist learning is chosen because it refers to the learners’ activity in constructing knowledge for them. To complete the approach of this study, the writer chose Task-Based Learning because Task Based Learning can be very effective to the implementation of constructivist learning in Senior High School.

There were two problems formulated in this study. They were: 1) How is a set of reading material using constructivist learning for Language Program Students of Senior High School Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta designed? 2) What will the designed set of materials look like?

In this study, the writer applied the R and D method. Research information collecting was done to seek the learners’ needs. Preliminary Field testing was done for getting the respondent’s evaluation on the designed materials.

To answer the first problem, the writer designed a set of instructional materials, by combining Yalden’s model and Kemp’s model. There were six steps to be taken from the adaptation and modification of the models, those are: 1) Conducting pre-design survey, 2) Stating the goals, topics and general purposes, 3) Selecting teaching learning activities and resources, 4) Developing a set of reading materials for the Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI based on constructivist learning theory, 5) Conducting post-design survey, 6) Revising and making the final version of the materials.

To answer the second problem, the writer presents a set of reading instructional materials. There are eight units of reading instructional materials. The title of the instructional materials is “Let’s Read”. The materials were arranged systematically. In each unit, the teaching learning activities consist of three stages. They are: Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling of the Text, andIndependent Construction of the Text. The mean as the result of the survey on the designed materials ranged from 3.2 to 4.7. It showed that the designed materials were appropriate for the Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI.

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Para siswa Kelas XI Program Bahasa SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta dituntut untuk memiliki kemampuan berbahasa Inggris yang lancar. Hal tersebut dikarenakan Program bahasa adalah suatu program khusus yang mempelajari berbagai bahasa. Pada akhir masa pembelajaran di Sekolah Menengah Atas Kelas XII, para siswa akan menghadapi Ujian Nasional. Dalam ujian tersebut terdapat item reading. Oleh karena itu, reading adalah salah satu faktor penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris bagi siswa Sekolah Menengah Atas. Melihat fenomena yang terjadi, penulis mendesain satu set materi reading untuk siswa Kelas XI Program Bahasa di SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta. Constructivist learning dipilih karena constructivist learning mengacu pada kegiatan siswa dalam memabangun pengetahuan untuk diri mereka sendiri. Untuk melengkapi pendekatan dalam studi ini, penulis memilih Task-Based Learning, karena Task Based Learning adalah pendekatan yang efektif dalam pengimplementasian constructivist learning untuk siswa Sekolah Menengah Atas.

Ada dua permasalahan yang diformulasikan di dalam studi ini. Permasalahan tersebut adalah 1) Bagaimana mendesain satu set materi reading menggunakan constructivist learning untuk siswa kelas XI SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta? 2) Seperti apa desain tersebut?

Dalam studi ini, penulis mengaplikasikan metode R dan D. Pengambilan data penelitian dan informasi dilakukan untuk mencari kebutuhan siswa dalam berbahasa Inggris. Evaluasi pra-area dilakukan untuk mendapatkan evaluasi dari para responden tentang desain materi.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mendesain materi dengan mengkombinasikan model Kemp dan Yalden. Penulis mengambil enam langkah adaptasi dan modifikasi dari model – model tersebut, yaitu: 1) mengadakan survey sebelum membuat materi, 2) menyatakan sasaran, topik dan tujuan umum, 3) menyeleksi kegiatan belajar mengajar dan sumber, 4) mengembangkan materi bacaan dengan pembelajaran yang membangun untuk Siswa Program Bahasa Kelas XI di SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, 5) menyelenggarakan survey setelah pembuatan materi, 6) merevisi dan membuat versi akhir materi.

Untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua, penulis mempresentasikan satu set materi. Materi bacaan tersebut terdiri dari delapan unit. Judul materi bacaan tersebut adalah “Let’s Read”. Materi tersebut disusun secara sistematis. Setiap unit terdiri dari tiga tahap. Tahap – tahap tersebut adalah Building Knowledge of the Field, Modeling of the Text, danIndependent Construction of the Text. Nilai rata – rata survey atas materi adalah antara 3.2 sampai dengan 4.7. Hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa materi bacaan sesuai untuk Siswa Program Bahasa Kelas XI.

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USING CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING FOR LANGUAGE PROGRAM STUDENTS YEAR XI

IN SMA STELLA DUCE 1 YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree

in English Language Education

Monika Dini Kurniasari Student Number: 031214015

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

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USING CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING FOR LANGUAGE PROGRAM STUDENTS YEAR XI

IN SMA STELLA DUCE 1 YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana PendidikanDegree

in English Language Education

Monika Dini Kurniasari Student Number: 031214015

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

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“To my beloved Parents,

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First of all, I would like to thank to Jesus Christfor His love, guidance, and blessings during the writing of this thesis.

There were also several people who had contributed a lot to the writing of this thesis. It gives me a real pleasure to acknowledge their help.

I really indebted to Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum., as my major sponsor, and to my co-sponsor, Ch. Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., for their love, guidance, comments, advice, support, criticisms, and patience, so that finally this thesis could be finished.

A special appreciation goes to V. Triprihatmini, S.Pd., M.Hum., as the guest examiner, for her comments, advice, and criticisms, so that the writer could make the final version of this thesis.

I would like to give my appreciation to Sr. Petra, CB, S.Pd., as the principal in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, andDrs. Y. Yanie Lishartanto, as vice principal in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, for giving me a chance to do the research in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta.

A special appreciation goes toTh. Indriati, S.Pd., as my sponsor in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta. I would also thank to E. Fransiska Setyawati Gunawan, S.Pd., Sweet Suzi Maria, S.Pd., MV. Kaprista Sutikno, S.Pd., and Yohanes De Britto Johny Hartono, S.S., for their comments, support and guidance during the field test of the designed materials. Moreover, I also thank to Language Program Students Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, for their comments, considerations, and ideas so that the needs analysis could be done effectively.

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Punto Aji, S.Pd., M.Hum., as the expert respondents, their criticisms were valuable in preparing the final version of the designed materials.

My greatest appreciation goes, as always, to my beloved parents,Herman Budi SusetyoandYC. Sri Suwarni, who always share their endless love, caring, and support. I really appreciate for everything that they have given to me. To my lovely sister,Nathalia Nindi Kristianingrum, thank you so much for your love, support, and caring.

My deepest appreciation goes to my beloved soulmate, Bramasto Adhy Henryanto, for his support, understanding, and most of all for his accompaniment in tears and joys.

A special thanks goes to my consultants, Lintang, Nita and Ratri, for their comments, guidance, and support.

Special thanks also go to Ipad, Layung, Titien, Ayu, Yessy, and Miertha, for their friendship, supports, and valuable experiences that have been shared together. May our friendship last forever.

I would also thank to all of my friends in English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University, especially class A year 2003, for their craziness and support.

I would also thank to Mba Dani and Mbak Tari, for their kindness, understanding and support. May both of both of them always bless with health and spirits to do the work.

Finally, to the people that are probably not mentioned here, for their time and willingness to help me in doing this thesis.

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Page

PAGE OF TITLE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv

ABSTRACT ... xv

ABSTRAK... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Problem Identification ... 4

C. Problem Limitation... 4

D. Problem Formulation... 4

E. Objectives ... 5

F. Benefits... 5

G. Definition of Terms ... 5

1. Supplementary Materials... 5

2. Constructivist Learning ... 6

3. Task Based Learning ... 6

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5. Students of Senior High School Year XI ... 7

6. Language Program of Senior High School... 7

7. SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta ... 7

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Description ... 8

1. Design... 8

a. The Objectives... 8

b. The Students ... 8

c. Motivation ... 9

2. Theory of Reading ... 9

a. The Nature of Reading ... 9

b. The Specific Skills Involved in Reading ... 10

c. The Importance of Motivation... 11

d. The Need of Suitable Reading Material ….. ... 12

3. Constructivist Learning ... 13

a. Activities that involve real communication... 13

b. “Task Principle” ... 13

c. “Meaningful Principle” ... 14

4. Task Based Learning ... 16

a. The Importance of TBL... 17

b. Varieties of tasks ……….. ... 18

c. Component of TBL framework ……… ... 20

d. The implementation of TBL for classroom students ... 23

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5. Instructional Material Design ... 34

a. Yalden’s Model ... 35

b. Kemp’s Model ... 36

B. Theoretical Framework ... 38

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Method... 40

B. Research Participants... 41

C. Setting ... 41

D. Research Instruments... 42

E. Data Gathering Techniques ... 43

F. Data Analysis... 43

G. Research Procedure ... 44

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. The Steps of Designing the Reading Materials 1. The Needs survey ... 47

a. Description of the Respondents for the Needs Survey ... 48

b. Data Presentation of the Needs Survey ... 48

c. The Result of Informal Interview toward English Teacher in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta ... 54

2. Topics and Basic Competence ... 55

3. Learning Objectives ... 56

4. Syllabus Type ... 58

5. Subject Content ... 59

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B. The Results of Survey Research for Evaluation on the Design Materials

1. The description of the Respondents ... 61

2. The Data Presentation a. The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the Designed Materials ... 62

b. The Respondents’ Recommendation ... 64

C. Discussion ... 65

D. The Presentation of The Designed Reading Materials ... 65

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion... 66

B. Suggestion ... 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY... 69

APPENDICES... 71

Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ... 72

Appendix B: Surat Keterangan Penelitian... 73

Appendix C: Questionnaire for Language Program Students Year XI ... 74

Appendix D: Interview Guideline ... 78

Appendix E: Questionnaire for Teachers and Lecturers ... 79

Appendix F: Rekapitulasi Kegiatan Penelitian... 81

Appendix G: Syllabus... 83

Appendix H: Lesson Plans ... 92

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Page

Table 3.1. Description of the Respondents (Blank) ... 41

Table 3.2. Respondents’ Opinions (Blank) ... 44

Table 4.1. The Respondents for the Needs Survey... 48

Table 4.2. The Results of the Questionnaire for Language Program Students Year XI ... 50

Table 4.3. Topics ... 55

Table 4.4. General Instructional Objectives ... 55

Table 4.5. Learning Objectives... 57

Table 4.6. Description of the Respondent... 61

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Page

Figure 1. Condition for Language Learning ... 17

Figure 2. Components of the TBL Framework ... 22

Figure 3. A TBL Framework for Beginners and Young learners... 23

Figure 4. Stages of the Teaching/Learning Cycle... 32

Figure 5. Yalden’s Model Instructional Designed Model... 36

Figure 6. Kemp’s Model: Teaching Learning Activities and Resources... 38

Figure 7. The Steps of the Materials Design... 39

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents Background of the Study, Problem Identification, Problem Limitation, Problem Formulation, Objectives, Benefits and Definition of Terms of this study.

A. Background of the Study

English is an important language in the globalization era. For this reason the students should improve their skill in English. The English teaching that is being implemented in Indonesia emphasizes on the use of English for communication. In order to achieve the ability not only to communicate but also to comprehend texts using English, the students must be given opportunities to practice the skills constantly.

By the end of the Senior High School Year XII, the students will meet the National Exam. In English test of the National Exam, there will be reading test items. Therefore, reading is one of the influential factors in learning English for Senior High School students. According to Thompson (1987: 50), reading is an activity integrating the text and readers’ background knowledge to build meaning. Based on this reason, the writer categorizes reading skill as a difficult skill in learning English. It is because reading skill requires many different elements. They are mechanical eye movements, grammar, vocabularies, spelling and intellectual comprehension. Based on this fact, the writer chooses reading skill as the subject matter of this study.

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To accomplish the final project, the writer makes the design of reading material using constructivist learning for the Language Program of Senior High School students. In this study, the writer applies a specific approach which is relevant to the constructivist learning. The further approach of this study is the Task Based Learning. The implementation of the study concerns for the Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI.

In the learning process, the teacher has an important role to increase the students’ motivation to learn. Positive motivation is essential since it provides greater effort, encourages concentration, and increases cooperation with those involved in the instruction process. The appropriate approach of this study is constructivist learning. Constructivist learning refers to the learners’ activity in constructing knowledge for themselves. The constructivist learning assists the students how to access and use knowledge that is already present, to solve problem and to understand inquiry skills so that new knowledge can be sought after and obtained. Brooks further elaborates the idea of constructivism which the learners identify the process as honoring the learning process, considering the possibilities, and coming to know one’s world (1993: iii).

The writer chooses a specific approach which is relevant to the constructivist learning. The approach is the Task-Based Learning. The writer choosesTask-Based Learningbecause Task Based Learning can be very effective to the implementation of constructivist learning in Senior High School. The methodology requires a change in the traditional teacher's role. The teacher is an observer during the learning process and becomes a language informant only during the language focus learning. The traditional way of teaching describes

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when the teachers used tasks as a follow-up to a series of structure or vocabulary which was only based on the lessons. Tasks were activities as part of a graded and controlled way for the teacher to observe the students. According to Willis, task based learning is not just about getting learners to do one task and then another task, the task cycle offers learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language, under teacher guidance, while planning their report of the task. (1996: 40)

The writer focuses this study for the Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI. In Language Program of Senior High School, the students are demanded to have fluent English. It is because Language Program is a specific program in Senior High School which studies about languages such as Indonesian, English, Deutsch, Japanese, and Mandarin. Based on this idea, there is a need to have fluent English in Language Program of Senior High School.

The writer chooses SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta as the place of the study. It is because SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta is one of the best Private Schools in Yogyakarta. By having the experience of studying in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta, the writer is familiar with the active and independent learning that was being used when she was studying there. This active and independent learning fits to the constructivist learning which is as the main point of this study.

Referring to Houle (1978:230), design is “a developed plan to guide educational activity in a situation”. A teacher should plan, do and evaluate. Moreover, this study proposes behavioral approach emphasizes the importance of what the students usually do to construct their skill.

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B. Problem Identification

English is an important language in the globalization era. For this reason the students should encourage themselves to have a good English skill. In this study, reading is considered as an important skill for the Senior High School students because in theNational Examthere will be reading test items. Moreover, in Language Program of Senior High School Year XI, the students ought to develop their language skill. Therefore, the constructivist learning idea is the significant approach in learning English for Language Program of Senior High School Year XI. Applying constructivist learning motivates the students to be active and independent in receiving knowledge.

C. Problem Limitation

This study discusses the material in applying constructivist learning in learning English especially in reading skill in Language Program of Senior High School Year XI. Moreover, this study also tells what kind of strategy that will be used in applying the constructivist learning in reading skill in order to encourage the students to be active and independent.

D. Problem Formulation

1. How is a set of reading material using constructivist learning for Language Program Students of Senior High School Year XI in SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta designed?

2. What will the designed set of reading material using constructivist learning for Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI look like?

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E. Objectives

The objectives of this study are:

1. To find out how a set of reading material using constructivist learning for the Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI is applied.

2. To present the designed set of reading material using constructivist learning for Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI.

F. Benefits

This study is expected to illustrate the designed materials to teaching English in Language Program of Senior High School Year XI, especially to teach reading skill using constructivist learning. The designed materials, hopefully, can make the students active and independent in developing their ability in reading. Additionally, the writer also hopes that this study will provide information that will encourage other researchers to be more creative in producing a better design of material in the future.

G. Definition of terms 1. Instructional materials

According to Hornby, instruction refers to the process of teaching; knowledge or teaching given (Hornby, 1995:619). Teaching means a form of instruction. Instructional design can be best applied first to individual topics and then to units and then to complete courses, involving one or a few teachers. Instructional materials could be acquired in the forms of textbook, newspaper journals or handouts selected by the teacher for teaching instructional materials.

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2. Constructivist Learning

Constructivism refers to a theory about teaching that must be proposing learner with situation which are honoring the learning process, considering the possibilities, and coming to know one’s world (Brooks, 1993: iii). In this study, constructivist learning refers to the learners’ activity in constructing knowledge for themselves. The constructivist learning assists students how to access and use knowledge that is already present, to solve problem, and to understand inquiry skills so that new knowledge can be sought after and obtained. (Brooks, 1993: 23) 3. Task Based Learning

Task Based Learning refers to a methodology that requires the tasks as central to the learning activity. Task Based Learning implies a shift away from the traditional teacher’s role. The teacher, in this study, is an observer during the learning process and becomes a language informant only during the “language focus” learning. According to Willis, tasks are activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome (1996:23). In this study, Task Based Learning signifies that the focus of the lesson is the task, not the structure. In other words students are given a task to perform their skill.

4. Reading

According to Thompson (1987: 50), reading is an activity integrating the text and readers’ background knowledge to build meaning. Reading skill acquires to have a good understanding in the knowledge itself. In this study, reading materials refer to the genre of description, narrative, anecdote, analytical expositionandhortatory exposition.

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5. Students of Senior High School Year XI

The age range of the students of the Senior High School Year XI is about 16 years old to 17 years old.

6. Language Program of Senior High School

Language Program is a specific program in Senior High School which studies about languages such as Indonesian, English, Deutsch, Japanese and Mandarin. In Language Program of Senior High School, the students are demanded to have fluent English. Based on this idea, there is a need of learning English as a Second Language in Language Program of Senior High School. Learning English as a Second Language in Language Program of Senior High School will help the students to have better English skill than others program in Senior High School.

7. SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta

SMA Stella Duce 1 Yogyakarta is a Private School. It is located in Jl. Sabirin No. 1 – 3, Kotabaru, Yogyakarta. It has 18 classes. There are 6 classes in each grade. The students in every class are about 35 to 40 students. Furthermore, starting from the second year, that is in the XI class, the students are divided into 3 (three) majors. The majors are Science Program, Social Program, and Language Program.

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8 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is divided into two main parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. In the theoretical description, five major points are discussed. They are the theory of design, the theory of reading, Constructivist Learning, Task Based Learning, and Instructional Materials Design models. The second part of this chapter attempts to draw a framework based on the theoretical description that has been discussed in the first part of this chapter.

A. Theoretical Description 1. Design

Houle (1978:230) states that design is “a developed plan to guide educational activity in a situation”. A teacher should plan, do and evaluate. Therefore, a teacher should prepare some elements. According Finocchiaro, (1958:5) those elements are:

a. The Objectives

In designing materials, a teacher should establish the objectives of the lesson. Objectives are important because they give direction not only to the teacher but also to the students.

b. The Students

A further element is the students. They have to be positioned as the subjects of the teaching learning process. Therefore, as the subjects, the students include their levels, needs, competencies and ages.

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c. Motivation

Motivation develops from our interest. According to Deci and Ryan, interest is called “intrinsic motivation”. Intrinsic Motivation is the natural tendency to pursue personal interest as exercise capabilities and in doing so, seek out and conquer challenges. Moreover, sometimes students do something in order to earn a grade or reward, avoid punishment, or to please the teacher. It means the motivation comes from “outside” of the students which called “extrinsic motivation” (Deci and Ryan, 1985:332).

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are important in the teaching learning process. Teaching can create intrinsic motivation by stimulating the students’ curiosity and making them feel more competent. On the other hand, the teacher should also encourage the learning process that is by giving the students attention, support, or reward as the external motivation. Furthermore, in order to give the needed information at the right time, a teacher should know about the factors that influence motivation.

There are four approaches to motivation; they are “behavioral, humanistic, cognitive and social learning approach to motivation” (Deci and Ryan, 1985:333). The behavioral approach accentuates the importance of what the students usually do in constructing their skill.

2. Theory of Reading a. The Nature of Reading

Nuttal (1982:23) defines reading as the meaningful interpretation of printed or written verbal symbol. It means that reading is a result of interaction

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between the perceptions of graphic symbols that represent language and the readers’ language skills and the knowledge of the world. As it refers to Thompson (1987: 50), reading is an activity integrating the text and readers’ background knowledge to build meaning. Moreover, according to Pfutze in Sartinah (1988:65), reading material is a text consists of sentences which are arranged in orderly manner and make up a structured unity.

From all of the definitions above, reading is an active process of comprehending meaning of a reading material in which relating with the readers’ background knowledge. Therefore, reading is one of the influential factors in learning English.

To teach reading skill, teachers must be able to create the situation where the topic is not merely pointed to the students as language exercises but as a theme needed by the learners. In this point, reading skill acquires to have a good understanding in the knowledge itself. That is why a constructivist learning is needed in acquiring an excellent reading skill.

b. The Specific Skills Involved in Reading

According to Heaton (1979:104), there are some specific skills involved in reading. The specific skills are:

1) Distinguishing between letters and recognizing the letter-sound relationship. 2) Recognizing words and word groups, requiring ability to associate sounds

with their corresponding graphic symbols and understanding meaning of a reading text.

3) Understanding the meaning of words and word groups in the context in which they appear.

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4) Recognizing structural clues and comprehend structural patterns.

5) Comprehending the plain meaning of a sentence or any complete sequence of words.

6) Perceiving relationship and sequence of ideas.

7) Comprehend paragraph and longer units of prose and select the main idea and other significant features.

8) Drawing conclusion, making inference, and “read between the lines” c. The Importance of Motivation to the Reading Process

There are many basic factors which are important for the teacher to observe if the student is to achieve a satisfactory level of reading achievement. Positive motivation is essential since it provides greater effort, encourages concentration, and increases cooperation with those involved in the instruction process. According to Cushenbery (1985:97), there are a number of principles which appear to be vital to every content teacher in understanding the vital topic of motivation as it refers to the process of developing and learning the basic skills of reading. Those principles are:

1) Teachers need to understand that they are important role models for the vast majority of their students.

2) The curriculum needs to be fashioned in such a manner to permit some success and achievement for all students regardless of their previous academic background.

3) Motivation to read should involved both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects.

4) The physical aspects of the classroom may have both positive and negative effects with respect to the motivational level of students.

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5) Content teachers should provide guidance to students as they undertake everyday reading assignments.

6) Teachers should understand that there are many influences in the life of a young student which have a direct bearing on the motivational level of learner.

7) A cooperative effort should be undertaken with parents to help build a student’s motivation to read class assignments.

d. The Need of Suitable Reading Materials

Woods (1991: 124) suggest seven consideration keys in selecting reading materials for the students. The seven keys are:

1) Topics are familiar to the students.

The teacher should select texts which topics are familiar with the students. In this study, the topics should be appropriate for Language Program of Senior High School Students Year XI.

2) Topics that are in line with students’ interest.

Interest level affects level of students’ participation and performance. If the students find the topics of the material interesting, they will involve the reading activities without any force from the teacher. If the students are active in reading, it would no wonder contribute to success in their reading comprehension.

3) A substantive plot/message system.

If the teacher wants the student to exhibit their opinion and enjoy in reading process, they should select texts that are completely written and worth reading.

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4) Clear sequential development

Events in chronological order are easier to follow than events in random order.

5) Well-marked episodes

Reading comprehension will increase if the signal transition (change of people, topic or action) between episodes is clear.

6) Concrete subject

Sometimes the teacher is unaware of selecting texts which meaning are ambiguous. It perplexed the students because the text says something but means another. So, the assignment of text should provide the students with the meaning of connotation and denotation statements.

7) An appropriate length

Most teachers think that short reading texts are preferable. They do not realize that long texts which are carefully structured are not difficult to read. Similarly, if the key figures have been edited out, a short version of text will be more difficult to read.

3. Constructivist Learning

According to Johnson (1982) in Richard and Rodgers (1988: 72), there are three elements in language learning. The three elements are:

a. Activities that involve real communication which promote learning.

b. “Task Principle” is activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task.

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c. “Meaningfulness Principle” is activities in which language is meaningful to the learner and supports the learning process.

As constructivism is a theory about learning, teaching must be proposing learner with situation which are honoring the learning process, considering the possibilities, and coming to know one’s world (Brooks, 1993: iii). To develop a specific skill, the students have to construct their brain and behavior. Learning consists of the students’ constructed meanings and then they indicate how far they understand. According to CECA (Committee for Education and Cultural Action) in the International Committee of Museum Educators Conference (http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/museumeducation.html), there are nine principles of constructivist learning. The nine principles are:

1) Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exist “out there” but that learning involves the learner engaging with the world.

2) People learn as they learn. Learning consists of both meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology, each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

3) The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental. It happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning,

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especially for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands.

4) Learning involves language. The language we use influences learning. On the empirical level, researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level, there us a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully that language and learning are inextricably intertwined.

5) Learning is a social activity. It means a learning process is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our friends, our family as well as casual acquaintances. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid. Much of traditional is directed towards isolating the learner from all social interaction and towards seeing education as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the material objectives to be learned.

6) Learning is contextual.It means that the students do not isolated by the facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of the students’ life. The students learn in relationship, what they believe, their prejudices and their fear. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually extending the idea that learning is active.

7) One needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner. Moreover, the students must provide a path into the subject based on their previous knowledge.

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8) It takes time to learn. Learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them and use them. This cannot happen in the 5-10 minutes usually spent for a longer time to learn. If the students reflect on anything they have learned, they will realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought.

9) Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless we know “the reason why”, we may not be very involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us, even by the most severe and direct teaching.

4. Task - Based Learning

Teachers have been using tasks for hundreds of years. Frequently, in the past, the task was a piece of translation often from a literary source. The traditional way that teachers have used tasks is as a follow-up to a series of structure, function or vocabulary based lessons. In this study, the writer is not distinguishing between acquiring and learning. There are certain basic principles that can help the teacher to select and device useful classroom activities that are more likely to stimulate language learning. According to Willis (1996:11), most researches would agree that in order for anyone to learn a language with reasonable efficiency, three essential conditions must be met. These are basic enough to apply to all learners, regardless of their individual cognitive styles.

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There is also one additional condition that is desirable, though not essential. These conditions are summarised in the following figure:

Condition for Language Learning

Essential Desirable

Figure 1. Condition for Language Learning (Willis, 1996:11) a. The Importance of Task-Based Learning

Nunan states that task-based syllabuses represent a particular realization of communicative language teaching. Instead of beginning the design process with lists of grammatical, functional-notional, and other items, the designer conducts a needs analysis which yields a list of the target tasks that the targeted learners will need to carry out in the ‘real-world’ outside the classroom. Meanwhile, the students also need authentic data in which it refers to the samples of spoken or written language that have not been specifically written for the purposes of language teaching. (http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/syllabusdesign.html)

According to Willis, tasks are activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome (1996:23). In other words, the emphasis is on understanding and conveying meaning in order to complete the tasks successfully. An important feature of Task Based Learning is that learners have the freedom to choose whatever language forms they wish to convey what they mean, in order to fulfill, as well as they can,

Exposure to enrich but comprehensible

input of real spoken and written

language in use

Use of the language

to do things (i.e. exchange

meanings)

Motivation to listen and read the language and

to speak and write it (i.e. to process and

use the exposure)

Instruction in language (i.e. chances to focus on form)

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the task goals. The teacher can monitor from a distance, and, especially in a monolingual class, should encourage all attempts to communicate in the target language. But, this is not the time for advice and correction. Learners need to feel free to experiment with language on their own, and to take the risks. Fluency in communication is what counts. All learners need to experiment and make errors. Furthermore, Willis (1996:14) states that success and satisfaction are key factors in sustaining motivation. If students feel they have achieved something worthwhile, through their own individual effort, they are more likely to participate the next time. Hence, the need for teachers is to set achievable goals and to highlight students’ success.

b. The varieties of tasks

Willis states six types of tasks (1996: 26). They are: 1) Listing

Listing may seem unimaginative, but in practice, listing tasks generate a lot of talk as learners explain their ideas. The processes involved are brainstorming and fact finding. Brainstorming is the situation in which learners draw on their own knowledge and experience either a class or in pairs / groups. Moreover, fact-finding is the situation in which learners find things out by asking each other or other people and referring books, etc.

2) Ordering and sorting

These tasks involve four main processes. The processes are sequencing items (action or events in a logical or chronological order), ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria, categorising items in given groups or

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grouping them under given headings, classifying items in different ways (where the categories themselves are not given).

3) Comparing

Broadly, these tasks involve comparing information of a similar nature but from different sources or versions in order to identify common points and/or differences. The processes involved are matching to identify specific points and relate them to each other, finding similarities and things in common, finding differences.

4) problem solving

Problem-solving tasks make demands upon people’s intellectual and reasoning powers, and, though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The processes and time scale will vary enormously depending on the type and complexity problem. Real-life problems may involve expressing hypotheses, describing experiences, comparing alternatives and evaluating and agreeing a solution. Completion tasks are often based on short extracts from texts, where the learners predict the ending or piece together clues to guess it. The classification ends with case studies, which are more complex, entail an in-depth consideration of many criteria. 5) Sharing personal experience

These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The resulting interaction is closer to casual social conversation in that is not as directly goal-oriented as in other tasks. For that very reason, however, theseopen tasksmay be more difficult to get going in the classroom.

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6) Creative tasks

These are often called projects and involved pairs or groups of learners in some kind of freer creative work. They also tend to have more stages than other tasks, and can involve combinations of task types: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing and problem solving. Out-of-class research is sometimes needed. Organizational skills and team-work are important in getting the task done. In real-life rehearsals pairs or groups of students predict, plan and rehearse what they could say in typical real-life situations.

As mentioned above, there is open task type which is loosely structured with less specific goal. On the other hand, there is also closed task which is highly structured and have very specific goals. In this study, task with specific goals are good ways of encouraging students to interact in the target language in the language classroom.

c. Component of the Task Based Learning Framework

In designing reading materials, the writer chooses a task based learning framework that was developed by Jane Willis (1997:40). The step becomes the basis of this design. According to Willis, the framework consists of three phases. They are:

The first phase is Pre-task phase. The pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the task, activating topic-related words and phrases. To set up a task successfully, teachers should maintain themselves to construct advance preparation. Preparing teacher’s own task for the first time may seem to involve a lot of preliminary work, but the teacher can always use them again with different classes. And once the preparation is done, the teacher will find during the task

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cycle that it will be the students who are doing most of the work rather than the teacher. Then, teacher should introduce the topic. The teacher will need to help learners define the topic area. There may possibly be a need to clarify particular concept of the topic. However, students may, especially if they come from other cultures, hold different views on what some topics are about. Moreover, teachers also need to identify topic language. The point of the introductory focus on topic and language is not to teach large amount of new language, and certainly not to teach one particular grammatical structure, but to boost students’ confidence in handling the task, and give them something to fall back on if necessary. After that, teacher should provide the pre-task language activities. Pre-task activities to explore topic language should actively involve all learners, give them relevant exposure, and, above all, create interest in doing a task on this topic. In one lesson, one or two of these pre-task will probably be enough. Furthermore, teacher must also give task instructions. The students should understand what the task involves, what its goal and what outcome are required. Lastly, teachers must consider allowing preparation time. Allowing a few minutes for learners to prepare individually for certain tasks has been shown to result in language use that is richer in terms of complexity and variety of syntax, breadth of vocabulary, and in fluency and naturalness.

The second phase is Task cycle phase. The task cycle offers learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language, under teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the task. Feedback from the teacher comes when they want it most, at the planning stage, and after the report. Exposure to language in use can be

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provided at different points, depending on the type of task. Either before or during the task cycle, students might listen to recordings of other people doing the task, or read a text connected with the task topic, and relate this to their own experience of doing the task. So, the Task Based Learning framework so far provides the three basic conditions for language learning – exposure, use and motivation. Within the framework, there is a natural progression from the holistic to the specific. The task cycle offers learners a holistic experience of language in use.

The third phase is Language focus phase. Language focus allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in the language study in the language used during the task cycle. By this point, the learners will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to focus on the specific language forms is clearly contextualised though the task itself. The final phase, which includes analysis and practice components, fulfils the fourth desirable extra condition for learning-explicit study of language form.

Pre-task

Introduction to topic and task

Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instruction and prepare. Students may hear a recording of

others doing a similar task. Task cycle

Task Planning Report

Students do the task, in pairs Students prepare to report to Some groups present their or small groups, the whole class (orally or in reports to the class, or Teacher monitors from a writing) how they did the task, exchange written reports, and distance. what they decided or compare results.

discovered.

Students may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all did it.

Language focus

Analysis Practice

Students examine and discuss Teacher conducts practice of specific features of the text new words, phrases and

or transcript of the patterns occurring in the recording. data, either during or

after the analysis.

Figure 2. Components of the TBL framework (Willis, 1996:38)

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d. The Implementation of Task Based Learning for classroom students

A Task Based Learning framework for beginners and young learners

Longer Pre-task

Introduction to topic and task. Lots of teacher talk about the topic; use of pictures, demonstrations, songs.

Task cycle More sets of short tasks,

followed by lots of teacher chat about the tasks. Gradual increase in emphasis on these:

Planning Report Language focus

Finding, identifying and classifying common words and phrases.

Practice of classroom language and social phrases.

Keeping personal dictionaries.

Figure 3. A TBL framework for beginners and young learners (Willis, 1996:116)

Many teachers feel that real beginners, in this study refer to classroom students, need to be thought some grammar before they can start to do the task. But is this really a case? In task based learning, students learn by doing; the learning is part of the task itself (Willis, 1996:118).

Tasks provide opportunities for learners to listen to and participate in meaning-focused interaction from the very beginning, helping them to acquire the new language more naturally. Moreover, the affective factor is especially

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important when teaching beginners, in this study refer to classroom students. A task-based approach encourages beginners because it values what learners can achieve no matter how little language they have. For beginners, the teacher’s most important general priorities are (Willis, 1996:118):

1) establishing a relaxed, anxiety-free atmosphere in the classroom;

2) providing a lot of exposure that learners can make approximate sense of; 3) building on what they know, but without expecting perfection;

4) no forcing to speak at first if they prefer not to;

5) reassuring of their progress, and generally boosting their confidence.

The Task Based Learning framework for beginners differs from the standard framework in four ways. Firstly, there is tendency to exposure. One result of this will be a longer pre-task phase and a shorter task cycle. Secondly, the cycle may well consist of sets of short tasks rather than one long one. Thirdly, there is less emphasis put on public use of language until learners have gained confidence, the planning, and report stages are either omitted or very short, with the teacher giving the first reports informally. Finally, the language focus concentrates initially on words and phrases, only gradually progressing towards grammar. In this study, the writer divides two major steps of implementing Task Based Learning for classroom students. The two major steps of implementing Task Based Learning for classroom students are:

1) Task for beginners

The principle here is to start with what learners already know. Even complete beginners in English will find there are a lot of words they can already recognise which will help them boost their confidence. Furthermore, this stage

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may also be the same like the framework of task based leaning in constructing advance preparation. The teacher can designs and plan his or her lessons. The next phase is pre-task phase. Sample procedures for a pre-task phase follow, based on familiar words for learners of English. The specific aim of this phase of teacher talk is to get learners to tune in to the target language. It provides very useful exposure which learners can make sense of, with the help of gestures and mime. They will certainly not understand everything the teacher say, but they will be listening for meaning, and getting the general sense.

Once students have heard all the words, and recognise their written forms, there are several kinds of simple tasks and games that they can do with them, for example, classifying, odd word out, memory challenge and ‘Yes or No?’ games,etc. Or the teacher can also give task likelisting, ordering and sorting, problem solving, survey,etc for the early lessons.

2) Language focus for classroom students

After a set of tasks, when learners have gained some experience of the language in use, its patterns will begin to make sense. This is the time to focus on language form.

In Task Based Learning lessons, the teacher is generally a ‘facilitator’, always keeping the key condition for learning in mind. Facilitating learning involves balancing the amount of exposure and use of language, and ensuring they are both of suitable.

There are many ways in which the components within the framework can be weighted differently and adapted to suit learners’ need. For example, initially,

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with insecure false beginners, teacher may feel the report component is not appropriate. However, with learners who are confident and fluent but very inaccurate, teacher might want to spend more time on this component, with both an oral and written report. And sometimes students may like to repeat the task itself with another partner at the end of the language focus.

e. Text based tasks

Text, in this study, includes recordings of spoken language and extracts from radio, in addition to the printed word. Text-based task require learners to process the text for meaning in order to achieve the goals of the task.

1) selecting and balancing exposure

Willis states that exposure to target language is absolutely vital. Learners can only learn through trying to make sense out of the language they experience. So the quality of the exposure, i.e. to a well-balanced range of text types and topics, is crucial (1996:67).

Teachers need to pay attention to the coursebooks and students’ needs. Because of the impoverished and restricted language found in some coursebooks, many teachers are aware of the need to use supplementary materials. But, these must be chosen with due regard both for the language and the learner. Teachers need to be aware of learners’ possible end-of-course objectives and to think how they could continue their language learning independently after the course. All this is useful exposure, and should be assed, together with the classroom language that the course materials are likely to generate, to see how far the total exposure meets the learners’ needs.

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Encourage extensive reading for children to be fun is interesting. They can be supplemented by stories, activity books and reference books. Sometimes a class library of short stories, magazines, children’s story books and comics will help. Advances in computer technology mean that the internet is also becoming a useful resource.

Here are some criteria that should be kept in mind: they are, however, inextricably intertwined. Selecting a piece of material will involve considering all of them, and is often a delicate balancing act.

(1) Exploitability: choose a piece of material that lends itself to classroom exploitation, i.e. engaging task, or series of tasks, that will probably sustain students’ interest over a length of time.

(2) Topic: variety is important – it is impossible to please every member of the class every time. However, engaging tasks, with the right degree of challenge, will more than make up for a seemingly dull topic. An element of surprise or originality helps.

(3) Length/chunk-ability: choose a short piece, or a longer one that has obvious ‘pause’ points, i.e. can be split into sections with a task set on each. This is far more productive in class than a long piece, even it is an average book.

(4) Linguistic complexity: try choosing occasional items where the language itself seems difficult but the general message is predictable and the genre is familiar, e.g. weather forecast, sport reports. A simple task can be set that can be successfully achieved without the need to understand every idea.

(5) Accessibility: is the text culturally accessible or will students need additional background knowledge to appreciate it? With Business English or other

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professional area, students may need to know specific information, e.g. the type of organisation or its approach.

(6) Copyright: check that you are not breaking copyright laws by copying and using the material in class, or by storing it afterwards.

Grading a text by attempting its level makes no pedagogic sense, then, unless one knows the purpose for which the information is to be used. Text comprehensibility and task purpose are inspirable. The task defines the purpose for which the text needs to be understood. As a general rule, if the text is linguistically dense or complex, set an easy task, and follow it with others that encourage learners to focus on different aspects. If the text is easy, you can set more challenging tasks, for example understanding implications or inference. It is more realistic to grade the task rather than the text.

2) reading strategies

This section examines the ways in which language learners read, and compares them with common strategies in mother-tongue reading. We then consider the importance of recognising natural patterns in text. These will give some principles upon which to base task design, and help teachers to generate fresh idea for tasks.

Reading for meaning should become a priority, and they need to get used to the idea of sometimes reading for partial or approximate comprehension, rather than aiming at perfect understanding each time. As far as possible, the task set should encourage the kinds of language processing behaviours students will need after their course, for example, reading for information. Reading word by word is unlikely to be among them.

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One strategy that helps learners find their way through a reading text, to pick up the thread of an argument after getting lost, is recognising particular patterns and the words or phrases that signal them. Learners need to be able to recognise and exploit these patterns to improve their reading and listening comprehension and to help them organise text clearly and logically.

The examples of six patterns are:

(1) Situation – problem – solution – evaluation

Sometimes, however, it can be more complex. If the first solution proposed is no good, the evaluation will be negative and another solution will be put forward, followed by another evaluation. So then the pattern would be: situation – problem – solution 1 – evaluation (negative) – solution 2 – evaluation (positive). The problem or solution can be also elaborated on, for example, by explaining causes, reasons, and procedures.

(2) Sequential

Stories, anecdotes and descriptions of process often follow a sequential pattern. Written or planned text tends to contain a wider variety of time phrases to signal sequential patterns, such as eventually, after three weeks, later.

(3) General – specific

Often a general concept will be illustrated by an example, or general word, like ‘traffic’, followed by a more specific item, like ‘speeding cars’.

(4) Topic – elaboration

When writing, we introduce a new topic or new angle on an old topic by using titles and headings, or stating the next main theme or argument.

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(5) Main facts – supporting details

Newspaper reports typically begin with a paragraph that gives most of the main facts the story, often in one sentence.

(6) Hypothesis – evidence - conclusion

However, texts rarely follow just one of these patterns. Awareness of these patterns can help learners a lot. Awareness of these patterns can also help teachers and material writers. If teachers start by identifying the predominant patterns in each text, teachers can design better tasks. Recognising the main parts of the high-order pattern is useful when dividing a text. And if teachers can device tasks that highlight patterns, student will certainly find this helpful both when completing set tasks, and when reading or listening independently. 3) designing text-based task

All text-based tasks aim to encourage natural and efficient reading focusing initially on retrieval of sufficient relevant meaning for the purpose of the task. This will entail both holistic processing, i.e. gaining an overall impression, and picking up detail linguistic clues: a combination of what are commonly called ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ processes. There is a range of task designs that can be applied to text.

Designs for text-based tasks

Prediction tasks from headline and early text

from selected parts of text

from pictures or videos with/without words or soundtrack

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jumbled key points of a summary

jumbled pictures from a series

Restoration task  identifying words / phrases /sentences omitted from or added to a text

Jigsaw/spilt information tasks  Each student in a group reads a different part of a whole text or researches an angle of a theme. These are then combined to form a whole.

Comparison tasks two accounts of the same incident/event

 a diagram/picture to compare with a written account/description

Memory challenge tasks  after a single brief exposure to the text, students list / describe / write quiz question about what they can remember to show other pairs.

Task designs can also be combined. In the final event you need to select or design tasks that motivate students: that make them want to read, hear and learn from available exposure, and that encourage them to develop a variety of effective reading strategies. Sometimes teachers will need to copy and cut up a text. Sometimes retyping is necessary. However, each task successfully completed is a step on the road to the learner independence.

The task framework can be used flexibly as a planning tool to enable students to get the most benefits from text-based tasks. When using text of any kind, the pre-task phase may involve a quick study of the title or a small extract,

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or words and phrases from them. The task cycle may take a bit loner, depending on the length of text. The balance can also be changed slightly; there may be less emphasis on the planning and reporting components, to give more time for the reading and listening. There may be two or even three task cycles arising out of one text, each giving different insights into its meaning.

Task based on text motivates learners to read for a particular purpose. Each time they do so; they interact with the text in a slightly different way, and retrieve different kinds of meanings according to the task goals. This processes offers a variety of learning opportunities, and it is essential that the text chosen from altogether a representative sample of the target language the students will later need. In this study, the cycle of teaching and learning activities consist of number of stages which the teacher and students go through so that the students gradually gain independent control of a particular text-type. According to Feez (1998: 28), there are five stages of the teaching and learning style.

3 Joint construction of

the text 2

Modelling and deconstructing

the text 1

Building the context

5 Linking related

text 4

independent construction of

the text

Figure 4. Stages of the teaching/learning cycle (Feez, 199:28) (adapted from Callahan and Rothery 1988, Green 1992, Cornish 1992)

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a) Building the context

In this stage the students (Feez, 1998:28):

(1) are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text-type being studied;

(2) explore features of the general cultural context in which the text-type is used and the social purposes the text-type achieves;

(3) explore the immediate context of situation by investigating the register of a model text which has been selected on the basis of the course objectives and learners’ need.

In this stage, the form of the tasks describe in the form of context-building activities. It includes presenting the context pictures, audio-visual, excursions, field-trips, guest speakers, etc.

b) Modelling and deconstructing the text In this stage students (Feez, 1998:29):

(1) investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model; (2) compare the model with other examples of the text-type.

The tasks in this stage includes sorting, matching and labelling activities, for example, sorting sets of texts, sequencing jumbled stages, labelling stages, etc. c) Joint construction of the text

In this stage students (Feez, 1998:30):

(1) students begin to contribute to the construction of whole examples of the text-type;

(2) the teacher gradually reduces the contribution to the text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control the text-type independently.

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Diagnostic assessment is critical at this stage as the teacher must decide whether the students are ready to move to independent functioning or whether they need to undertake further work at the text modelling or joint construction stages.

d) Independent construction of the text In this stage students (Feez, 1998:31): (1) students work independently with the text;

(2) learner performances are used for achievement assessment.

In this stage, reading tasks include comprehension activities in response to written material such as performing a task, sequencing pictures, numbering, ticking or underlining material on a worksheet, and answering questions.

e) Linking related texts

In this stage students investigate how what they have learnt in this teaching/ learning cycle can be related to (Feez, 1998:31):

(1) other texts in the same or similar context; (2) future or past cycles of teaching and learning.

In this stage, reading tasks include comparing the use of the text-type across different fields, researching other text-type used in the same field and researching how a key language feature used in this type is used in other text-type.

5. Instructional Material Design

Instruction refers to the process of teaching; knowledge or teaching given (Hornby, 1995:619). Teaching means a form of instruction. Instructional materials could be acquired in the forms of textbook, newspaper journals or handouts

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selected by the teacher for teaching instructional materials. Hence, in developing a set of reading materials the writer needs a system of instructional design to be followed. Two models of instructional design are presented below:

a. Yalden’s Model

Yalden states that wants, needs, and desires of the learners are important aspects of the psychology of the classroom. One way of taking the aspects of the learners’ psychology into account is through the provision of needs – based yet flexible curriculum (1987: 143). According to Yalden, a communicative syllabus is a syllabus which is designed for describing a classroom experience in which more closely approximates an environment of real language and art (1987: 109). These are the steps of Yalden’s design model:

1) Needs Survey

This step is conducted to find the learners’ needs and to write the objectives that appropriate for the learner.

2) Description of the Purpose

By conducting a needs survey, the designer will have a direction for describing the purpose of the program.

3) Selection of Syllabus Types

The choice of the syllabus type is done when the general category of a language program has been decided.

4) Production of Proto – Syllabus

At this step, the designer specified the description of the content of the syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are designed in line with the type of syllabus.

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5) Production of Pedagogical Syllabus

The specification of every single words and phrases will be conducted in this step. Therefore, the production of proto – syllabus will be developed completely.

6) The Development

The communicative syllabus will give a significance changes in the teacher’s roles. The teacher should assume himself or herself as a facilitator, not a leader. Therefore, the classroom activities are conducted based on the learners’ activity rather than the teacher’s activity.

7) Evaluation

Evaluation can be done in every step that helps the type and the content of the syllabus.

Figure 5. Yalden’s Model Instructional Designed Model (Yalden, 1987: 88)

b. Kemp’s Model

According to Kemp, this model observes (1977:55) what instructional methods and instructional resources will be most appropriate for accomplishing each objective? In this model, the writer chose the individualized learning. As it relates to the constructivist learning in which learning must be accomplished by individuals for themselves and that it takes place best when the students work at Needs survey Description of Purpose Selection/ development

of a syllabus type

Production of a proto -syllabus

Production of a pedagogi

cal syllabus Development & Implementa-tion of Classroom Procedures Evaluation

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UNIT 8

Racism and Racial Violence

BUILDING KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD

1. Read this following article carefully!

Racism isn't going away

A survey of black opinion suggests prejudice has got worse, and solutions must come from within

Hugh Muir

Wednesday July 11, 2007

The Guardian

A few years ago, when working for the Daily Telegraph, I travelled to Leeds on a story about a teenage computer geek who hacked into the Pentagon computer network. Knowing that our subject once worked as a paperboy, a photographer and I wandered into a newsagent's close to his home, hoping for some insights. None sprang forth, but we passed a few amiable minutes with the owner, a smiling, ruddy-faced man, and then left.

Ten minutes later I was called by the news editor in London, who was laughing so much he could barely speak. "We've just had a call from a bloke who said these two guys came into his shop claiming to be from the Daily Telegraph, but he said he knew they couldn't be because one of them was black and the other one was half-caste," he told me. "He was calling to warn us." We should, perhaps, have done other things but instead we returned to the shop, part amused, part irritated. "By the way, I am black," I told the owner as we left the shop. "But you are wrong about him," I said, pointing to my colleague. "That's a suntan. He's just spent two weeks in Spain. "

These things rarely happen to me these days. Perhaps it's a result of living in London. Maybe I have been fortunate. But new research on black attitudes to racism suggests that for all the advances in race relations, many feel their lives are blighted by stereotyping and discrimination. Those questioned bemoaned their failure to be promoted at work and the effects of institutional racism, with 80% citing inequalities in the criminal-justice system. It's pretty gloomy stuff. And for those of us who like to think that things took an upward turn in the late 1980s, prompted by the Macpherson inquiry into the death of Stephen Lawrence and all the changes it wrought, it seems a bit of a wake-up call.

Even schemes born of good intentions, such as the government's Sure Start program, don't have much impact on us. This week an analysis concluded that the system is so bureaucratic as to represent a "substantial wasted opportunity" for black and other ethnic-minority families. Some may have benefited, others not. But there has been no meaningful evaluation, so no one knows.

And so the second thing to say is that as racism isn't going anywhere for the foreseeable future, we had better develop better coping strategies for dealing with it, as our parents had to do in the 1950s. All the evidence is that those solutions are going to have to come from within: from the black-led organizations and voluntary groups; from the black supplementary schools; from the heavily supported and wealthy black churches; from parents keeping their children in school - with or without the help of the authorities - and keeping them off the streets.

The Rev Al Sharpton, the American civil rights leader, isn't to everyone's taste, but he has a saying that seems appropriate. "If a man knocks you down," he tells audiences, "that's on them. If you stay down, that's on you."

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Purpose to persuade, analyze or explain by presenting arguments. Text Structure

Thesis :stating the writer’s opinion/position Argument (s) :giving reasons

Reiteration :restatement of the thesis Significant Grammatical Features

☺ Use of emotive words, such as: alarmed, worried, etc.

☺ Use words that quality statement, such as: usually, probably, etc.

☺ Use arguments words, such as: however, on the other hand, therefore, etc.

☺ Use present tense.

☺ Use compound and complex sentences.

2. What is the article tell about?

3. Have you ever experienced a racial discrimination? How did you handle

that situation?

4. In group of 5, consider about this question:

What will you do to make a better situation without any discrimination?

5. Complete the following Generic Structure of “Racism isn’t going away”!

Title

Thesis

Arguments

1.

2.

3.

4.

5. Reiteration

MODELLING OF THE TEXT

(3)

1. Read this following article carefully!

Anti-Muslim Racism?

by

Daniel Pipes

New York Sun

November 22, 2005

My talks at university campuses sometimes occasion protests featuring Leftists and

Islamists who call me names. A favorite of theirs is "racist." This year, for example, a

"Stand up to Racism Rally" anticipated my talk at the Rochester Institute of Technology, I

was accused of racism against Muslim immigrants at Dartmouth College, and pamphlets at

the University of Toronto charged me with "anti-Muslim racism."

Anti-Muslim racism? That oxymoron puzzled me. Islam being a religion with followers

of every race and pigmentation, where might race enter the picture? Dictionaries agree

that racism concerns race, not religion:



American Heritage: "The belief that race accounts for differences in human character

or ability and that a particular race is superior to others. Discrimination or prejudice

based on race."



Merriam-Webster: "A belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and

capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular

race. Racial prejudice or discrimination."



Oxford: "The belief that there are characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to

each race. Discrimination against or antagonism towards other races."

Even the notorious United Nations anti-racism conference at Durban in 2001

implicitly used the same definition when it rejected "any doctrine of racial superiority,

along with theories which attempt to determine the existence of so-called distinct human

races."

Thus understood, the term racist cannot be ascribed to me, as I neither believe that

race defines capabilities nor that certain races have greater capabilities than others.

Also, my writings and talks never touch on issues of race.

Does that mean the word racist merely serves Leftists and Islamists as an all-purpose

pejorative, a magical insult that discredits without regard to accuracy? No, the evolution

of this word is more complex than that. Racism is now increasingly used to mean

something far beyond its dictionary definition.

Note the evolution: As belief in racial differences and racial superiority wanes in

polite society, some parties expand the meaning of racism to condemn political decisions

such as worrying about too much immigration (even of poor whites), preferring one's own

culture, fearing radical Islam, and implementing effective counterterrorist measures.

This attempt to delegitimize political differences must be rejected. Racism refers

only to racial issues, not to views on immigration, culture, religion, ideology, law

enforcement, or military strategy.

(summarized from:http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Racism)

2. Complete the following Generic Structure of “Anti-Muslim Racism”!

Title

Thesis

Arguments

1.

2.

(4)

Reiteration

3. Find some difficult words from the “Anti-Muslim Racism” article and

then find the meaning in English-Indonesian dictionary!

No.

Difficult Words

Meaning

1. puzzled

membingungkan

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION OF THE TEXT

1. Read this following article carefully!

RACISM AND RACIAL VIOLENCE

Racism is a doctrine of hatred based on belief that certain people are

superior to others. It is a powerful ideology maintained by economic and

political structure which is practiced at all levels of society. It was primarily a

Black White issue. Its purpose is to protect White power and its privilege. It

breaks, divides, dehumanizes, disempowers, and destroys individuals and

communities of colored skin. It functions as a demonic force with devastating

consequences.

The roots of racism are deeply embedded in our global system. There is

no hiding place. There are no safety zones; there is no sacred space. The

violence of racism is institutional and structural; it is personal and communal,

causing untold misery and death. It pervades our values and constricts our

creativity. The roots of racism are connected to centuries of conquest,

genocide, and slavery, as well as centuries of exploitation and oppression.

There are many forms of racism. Some of them are environmental racism

and

racial

violence.

Environmental

racism

can

be

defined

as

racial

discrimination in environmental policy making and the enforcement of

regulations and laws. Others have added to that definition by saying that

environment racism to any governmental, institutional, or industrial action,

(5)

communities based on race and color. In an historical context, environmental

racism is the exploitation of people because of their color in the form of

genocide, chattel slavery, indentured servitude and racial discrimination in

employment, housing and practically in all aspects of life.

Racial violence differs from other forms of violence. It manifest in many

ways. In its mildest form, it can be pushing, spitting, name-calling, teasing, or

practical jokes. In more serious cases it involves physical assault, arson,

stabbing, rape, murder, attempted murder, massacres and genocide. Racial

violence has been the trade-mark of racism throughout the world history of

human beings. There is no continent which is free of racial violence. The use

of violence as a method of control and domination of those who are deemed to

be inferior and powerless is practiced in many cultures, societies and

countries of the world. At the domestic level, it is used against women,

children and other vulnerable members of family. At the national and

international level, poor people, asylum seeker, refugees, Black and minority

ethnic, migrant and indigenous people are occasionally subjected to, or

threatened with, violence by state and the institution that uphold and

perpetuate violence in the name of peace, order and national security. Any

form of violence is harmful to the victim and has wider implications for

society as a whole.

(taken from: Wicoyo, Joko. 2006. READING COMPREHENSION MATERIALS For Students of History, Philosophy, Social Science, Politics, Laws, and Economics. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. Page 32. (as condensed from: “RaciaL Violence by Mukami McCrum inEchoes magazines, Justice, Peace and Creation News, No. 7/2000))

2. Find some difficult words from the “Racism and Racial Violence” article

and then find the meaning in English-Indonesian dictionary!

No.

Difficult Words

Meaning

1. hatred

kebencian

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 3. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for

true an F for false.

a.

______