Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into two parts; they are theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical Description describes the theories of related literature that are needed to design the materials. Theoretical framework is concerned with the concept in designing the materials.

A. Theoretical Description

This theoretical description discusses some theories which will be used as the guidance in designing the materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching. They are Kemp’s Instructional Model Design, Research and Development RD, Communicative Language Teaching CLT, Task-Based Language Teaching TBLT, and English for Specific Purposes ESP.

1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

According to Kemp 1977:8 “instructional design is the process of systematic planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problems and needs, sets a procedure for solving them, supplies, applies them and then evaluates the result. In his model, the design follows the system approach where the goal and evaluation are used for adjustment and improvement. Moreover, Kemp also states that there are three questions that must be answered by the designer if he or she wants to design a unit or a course. Those are: PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 1. What must be learned? 2. What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? 3. How will we know when the required learning has taken place? The first question, what to learn, reflects the objectives of the design. The second question, what procedures and resources work best to reach the desired learning reflects the activities and resources of the design. The last question, how we know when the required learning has taken place, reflects the evaluation of the design. There are eight parts as proposed by Kemp in his model. 1. Consider goals and then list the topics and states the general purposes for teaching each topic. Instructional design planning starts with the recognition of the broad goals of a school system or institution. The goals may be derived from the society, learners, and subject area. Then, the teacher should list the major topics to be treated within the content area. 2. Identify learners’ characteristic In making the design appropriate for the learners and answer their needs, the designer should identify learners’ characteristic. This is used to know the learners needs, interest, and problems. There are two factors that should be determined in finding out the learners’ characteristics; those are academic and social factors. Academic factors include academic background, level of intelligence, number of learners, reading level, study habits, grade point averages, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 scores in standardized achievement and aptitude tests, ability to work alone, motivation to study the subject, background in the subject or topic, expectation of the course, vocational and cultural aspiration. Social factors include age, maturity, attention span, special talent, physical and emotional handicaps, relation between learners and socioeconomic situation. Still in Kemp 1977:19, learning conditions refer to “groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information”. 3. Specify the learning objectives Learning objectives should be stated clearly in order to promote the learning itself. According to Kemp, learning objectives can be categorized into three: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. The cognitive domain includes objectives concerning knowledge and information. The psychomotor domain includes objectives that care for the skills requiring the use and coordination of skeleton muscles, as in the physical activities of performing, manipulating and constructing. The affective domain includes objectives such as attitudes, appreciation, values and all emotion. 4. List the subject content that support each objective Subject content is important in learners’ learning experiences. Moreover, the subject content should support each objective of the materials. According to Kemp 1977, subject content is the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topics. Most importantly, subject content must be related to the objectives and learning needs. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 5. Develop pre-assessment to determine learners’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic. Pre assessment aims to know two major points. First is to determine the learners’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic being presented. Second is to determine which of the objectives that the learners have already achieved. 6. Select teaching-learning activities and resources Next, the designer should select teaching and learning activities that is suitable with the materials and the objectives. The designer should also determine the media and resources. According to Kemp 1977, there are three reasons why selecting media is complicated. First, there are many audiovisual resources from which to choose. Second, there are no clearcut guidelines in making the selection. Third, few educators have had broad enough experiences with the resources available to have a sound basis for selecting an appropriate medium or combination of media for communicating content or providing student experiences, in terms of an objective within the chosen teachinglearning pattern. 7. Specify support services for implementing activities and producing materials Support services for implementing activities and producing materials includes matters related to budget, facilities, equipment and personnel whose time must be scheduled for the participation in instructional plan Kemp, 1977:84. 8. Evaluate learners learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives In this step, the designer is ready to evaluate learners in accomplishing the objectives. The measurement can be in the form of evaluation. According to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13 Kemp 1977:98, there are several ways to evaluate the developed program, namely 1 test result, 2 reactions from learners, 3 observations of learners at work, 4 suggestion from colleagues. In this study, the evaluation step is the evaluation of the designed materials, not evaluation of the learners. The step of Kemp’s model is presented in figure 2.1. Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Model Kemp, 1977:9

2. Research and Development RD