- What is the appropriate form of spoken language to teach? - From the point of view of pronunciation, what is a reasonable model?
- How important is pronunciation? - Is it any more important than teaching appropriate handwriting in the
foreign language? - If so, why?
- From the point of view of the structures taught, is it all right to teach spoken language as if it were exactly like the written language, but with a
few „spoken expressions’ thrown in? - Are those structures which are described in standard grammars the
structures which our students should be expected to produce when they speak English?
- How is it possible to give students any sort of meaningful practice in producing spoken English?
Brown and Yule also draw a useful distinction between two basic language functions. These are the transactional function, which is primarily
concerned with the transfer of information, and the interactional function, in which the primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of social
relationships.
c. Teaching Speaking in CLT
According to Rivers 1968: 160-163, in teaching speaking skills, there are many things to be notice:
1 The teaching of speaking skill is more demanding on the teacher that the teaching of any other language skill.
2 The teacher will need to give the students opportunities to practice the speaking skill. They will need to use their imagination in devising situations
which provoke the student to the use of the language in the expression of their own meaning. For this reason, teacher must a natural activity through
the imagination for the students.
3 To teach the speaking skill, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the processes involved in speech. Through speech, man expresses his
emotions, communicates his intentions, reacts to other persons and situations, and influences other human beings. Spoken language is, then, a tool for a
man. 4 In the teaching of the speaking skill, we are engaged in two processes:
forging an instrument and giving the student guided practice in its use. The forging of the instrument requires much practice in the arbitrary associations
of the new language: lexical items, morphological and syntactical patterns, sentence types. The guided practice for students like the process of
generating new sentences can influence the ability of expressing students’
personal meaning. This smooth integration of processes which the student of a foreign language has to learn by assiduous practice.
d. Communicative Learning Activities and Techniques in CLT
The communicative activities and techniques in CLT are used to help the writer design the materials later. In this section, the writer mentions two
main activities. The first activity is Communicative Interaction Activities and second is Communicative Fluency Activities. Those two activities are
discussed as follows.
1 Communicative Interaction Activities
According to Paulston and Bruder 1976: 60-79, there are four basic types of activities in various combinations for developing communicative
competence:
a Social Formulas and Dialogues
In these activities, there is a progression from tightly controlled language use, where the student is learning the social formulas, to a
situation where he can use them Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 62. The teacher spends some time to explain the meaning, the connotations, and
the situation which would be used in various expressions. The students in each pair take turns reading from the printed dialogue while the other
answers from memory until they can run through both parts of the dialogue.
b Community-oriented Tasks
Community-oriented tasks are sets of exercises which compel the student to interact with native speakers outside the classroom. There are
two points to be notice: communicative participation in the community or real situations and the collection of highly relevant and needed information
Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 63. The assignment for students is handed out in class and the topic explained in general terms. Then it is up to the
students to find the answers outside the class Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 65. An alternative to oral reports is to have them act out their answers in a
role play.
c Problem-solving Activities
These exercises are just what they sound; the students are presented with a problem and some alternative solutions from which they have to
choose one Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 67. Most of the problem-solving activities involve group work. Paulston and Bruder advice a few basic
considerations. The group may depend partly on the size of the class and ideally, the size is not more than four or five in a group. Teacher should
mix up between the talkative student and the quiet one and also switch the groups around, and change the group leaders as well 1976: 69.
d Role play
Role-plays are exercises where the student is assigned a fictitious role from which he has to improvise some kind of behavior toward the other
role characters in the exercise Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 70. Role play can be very simple and the improvisation highly controlled, or it can be
very elaborate. The format of a role play consists of three basic parts: the situation, the roles, and useful expressions.
The situation sets the scene and the plot, i.e., explains the situation and describes the task or action to be accomplished. The roles section assigns
roles, the list of characters. In the roles, we need to include such information as personality, experience, status, personal problems, and
desires. Useful expressions contains the linguistic information, primarily expressions, phrases, and technical vocabulary. Grammar patterns, which
are necessary, also fit in here, e.g., WH questions for an interview situation Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 70.
2 Communicative Fluency Activities
In his book, Klippel 2005 introduces a way to make and arrange communicative fluency activities for language teaching. His book contains
activities with their important sections and exercises. According to Klippel 2005, there are several principles in developing and selecting the activities.
First, the activities should reflect a message-oriented communication, focus on learner-centered activities, and produce an active learning, cooperation
and empathy. In message-oriented communication, the target language is actually
used as a means of communication. A prime instance of this use is classroom discourse, i.e. getting things done in the lesson Klippel, 2005: 3. There are
two devices which help the teacher in making up communicative activities. First, the information gap exercises force the participants to exchange
information in order to find a solution, for example, reconstitute a text, solve a puzzle, and write a summary. Second is opinion gap. This gap is created by
exercises incorporating controversial texts or ideas, and it involve the participants to describe and defend their view of these ideas. Opinion gap
activity can be organized by letting the participants share their feelings about an experience they have in common Klippel, 2005: 4
Many of the activities are concerned with the learners themselves. Klippel 2005: 5 believed that for learners who are studying English in a
non- English-speaking setting it is very important to experience real communicative situations in which they learn to express their own views and
attitudes, and in which they are taken seriously as people. The degree of learner activity depends, among other things, on the type
of material they are working on. Learner activity in a more literal sense of the word can also imply doing and making things and it forces the students to
read, write, and talk in the foreign languages as well. Setting up an opinion poll in the classroom also makes students actively interview each other and it
literally gets them out of their seats. Further devices to make learners more active are games.
Klippel 2005: 7-10 also gives the method how to use the activities. The methods deal with the class or group, the teacher’s role, and ways of
organizing discussion groups, as well as giving hints on the selection and use of the activities in class.
a Atmosphere
Speaking about oneself is not something that everyone does with ease. Klippel 2005: 7 stated that the first essential requirement for the use of
learner-centered activities is a relaxed and friendly atmosphere in the group. Only then can the aims of these activities be achieved: cooperation
and the growth of the understanding.
Groups or classes which have been formed and have a new teacher may not develop this pleasant kind of group feeling immediately, so
expectantly, activities dealing with very personal topics should be avoided. Warming-up exercises and jigsaw tasks may stimulate a good atmosphere.
In any case teachers should be able to select activities which their students will feel at ease with Klippel, 2005: 8.
b The teacher’s role
Klippel 2005: 8 said that many exercises would run themselves as soon as they get underway. The teacher then has to decide whether to join
in the activity as an equal member or remain in the background to help and observe. There are advantages of those two roles of teacher above. When
teachers become equal member in class, the psychological distance may be reduced between students and teacher and then students get to know their
teacher better. Teacher also has to refrain from continually correcting the students.
In the contrary, when teachers remain in the background to help or become non-participation person, teacher may observe the performance of
several students in the foreign language and note the common mistakes for revision at a later stage. The teacher should also be careful not to correct
students’ errors too frequently. It seems far better for the teacher to use the activities for observation and to help only when the students themselves
demand help Klippel, 2005: 8.
c Ways of organizing discussion groups
According to Klippel 2005: 9-10, a number of different ways of setting up the communicative activities in his book are explained in the
description of the activities themselves. A few major types are described below:
1 Buzz groups: A problem is discussed in small groups for a view minutes before views or solutions are reported to the whole class.
2 Hearing: „Experts’ discuss a topical question and may be interviewed
by a panel of students who then have to make a decision about that question.
3 Fishbowl: All the members of the class sit in a big circle. In the middle of the circle there are five chairs. Three are occupied by
students who maybe, have controversial topic will start the discussion. Students from the outer circle may replace the speakers by tapping
them on the shoulder. 4 Network: The class in divided into two groups which should not have
more than 10 students each. Student who is speaking will hold the ball of string and when he finished he gives the ball of string to the next
speaker. As the result, a web of string develops, showing who talked the most and who the least.
5 Onion: The class is divided into two equal groups. Then the chairs are arranged in a double, outer and inward circle are facing each other.
Each student in inner circle sits facing the student in outer circle.
They have a discussion and then they can move on one chair to have a new partner to discuss again.
6 Star: Four to six small groups try to find a common view or solution. Each group elects their speaker in the groups and the speaker will
enter the discussion in the other group. 7 Market: The entire students walk about the room; each talk to several
others. 8 Opinion vote: Each student receives voting cards and then discusses
the different opinions. 9 Forced contribution: Numbers are distributed which determine the
order of speaking to make sure that all the students give their views in the discussions.
d Selection of activities
Klippel 2005: 10 gives suggestions about how to select the activities, which he creates in his book. We can select randomly from skimming the
whole book.
e Using the Activities
According to Klippel 2005: 10-11, once we have found a suitable activity for our class, we should do the following:
1 Prepare your materials in sufficient quantity. 2
Read through the „procedure’ section and if necessary note down the main steps. Think about how you are going to introduce the activity
and whether your students will need any extra help.
3 Decide which role you are going to adopt joining, helping, observing and stick to it throughout the activity.
4 Let the students give you feedback on the activity when it is finished.
5 Make a note of any problems arising as well as your own comments and those of your students. You can then modify the activity when you
use it again.
Klippel 2005 arranged his communicative fluency activities and divided communicative fluency activities under three headings:
a Questions and Answers
1 Warming-up exercises When people have to work together in a group, they get to know each
other a little at the beginning. Once they have talked to each other in an introductory exercise they will be less reluctant to cooperate in
further activities Klippel, 2005: 12. One important use of warming- up exercises is with new classes at the beginning of the course or the
school year. Most of the warming-up exercises are suitable for beginners because they do not demand more than simple questions
and answers. However, the language content of the exercises can easily be adapted to a higher level of proficiency Klippel, 2005: 13.
2 Interviews The success of an interview depends both on skill of the interviewer,
on her ability to ask the right kinds of questions, to insist and interpret, and on willingness to talk on the part of the person being
interviewed Klippel, 2005: 24. In the foreign language classroom, interviews are useful not only because they force students to listen
carefully but also because they are so flexible in their subject matter.
Before we use an interview in our class, make sure that the students can use the necessary question-and-answer structure. Students should
make some notes on the questions they are going to ask and of the answers they get Klippel, 2005: 25.
3 Jigsaw tasks Jigsaw tasks are said to improve cooperation and mutual acceptance
within the group. Participants in jigsaw tasks have to do a lot of talking before they are able to fit the pieces together in the right way
Klippel, 2005: 40. Klippel also stated that, Jigsaw tasks practice two very different areas of skill in the foreign language. Firstly, the
students have to understand the bits of information they are given and describe them to the rest of the class. Secondly, the students have to
organize the process of finding the solution. Pair or group work is necessary for a number of jigsaw tasks Klippel, 2005: 41.
4 Questioning activities This last activity in questions and answers section is something of a
mixed bag, as far as it contains all activities. As soon as students are able to produce yesno and wh-questions, most of the three activities
above can be used Klippel, 2005: 51.
b Discussions and Decisions
1 Ranking Exercises These exercises require students to put a certain number of items from
given list into an order of importance or preference. This rearranging
phase is usually followed by a period discussion, when students explain or defend their choices in airs or small groups Klippel, 2005:
58. Klippel 2005: 59 recommended that ranking exercises should practice interactive language, for instance agreeing, comparing,
contradicting, disagreeing, and giving reasons. 2 Discussion games
The main intention of all exercises in this part is to get students to talk and to stimulate their interest and imagination. Thus some discussion
games make the students think about their values and priorities, others help something about themselves, and play with words Klippel,
2005: 73. We can also use discussion games to improve the atmosphere in our class and help students cooperate better with each
other Klippel, 2005: 74. 3 Values Clarification techniques
The activities in Klippel 2005 book mainly concern the prizing and choosing values; acting one’s beliefs cannot be learnt easily in the
foreign language class. It is essential to do the exercises in a supportive and relaxed atmosphere. We may help create this
atmosphere by joining some of the exercises and sharing our values with our students Klippel, 2005: 89. In this exercise, students are
often asked to jot down their ideas and feelings.
4 Thinking Strategies The thinking strategies included resemble each other in that different
ideas have to be collected by the participants in the first stage. In the second stage these ideas have to be ordered and evaluated, for
instance, brainstorming activity Klippel, 2005: 96. 5 Problem-solving activities
In the following activities, the learners have to find solutions to various types of problem. The language, which is needed from
problem-solving activities, depends on the topic of each exercise, but in general, students will have to make suggestions, give reason, and
accept Klippel, 2005: 102-103.
c Stories and Scenes
1 Miming Objects, actions or people have to be mimed and guessed. The mimes
are done in pairs or group; in one case individual students have to perform their mimes for the whole class but then, sometimes pair or
group work will be better to reduce stage fright and it can be used as a starter Klippel, 2005: 115. Miming activities are valuable language
learning situations. Guessing something is linked with the real desire to find out and this is the true communicative situation.
2 Role play and simulation Both role play and simulation are forms of games mirroring a slice of
reality Klippel, 2005: 121. Most simulations demand that the
participants are supplied with background information and materials to work from both before and during simulation. Role plays are quite
demanding foreign language situation in that the players have to use the foreign language correctly Klippel, 2005: 122.
3 Stories The aim of these activities is to get the students to produce longer
connected texts. For this, they will need imagination as well as some skill in the foreign language Klippel, 2005: 130. Story-telling
activities more than a limited number of patterns and structures and these activities are best used as general revision.
From the two theories about communicative interactional activities and communicative fluency activities, the writer chose the activities, exercises,
and techniques to be included in the materials. In communicative instructional activities, the writer includes social formulas and dialogues, role
play, interviews, questioning activities, and discussion games. The communicative exercises could be warming-up exercises, role play and
simulation, problem-solving exercises, and community-oriented exercises. The teaching techniques would be discussion and decision, question and
answer, and stories and scenes.
B. Theoretical Framework
In this study, the process of designing the instructional materials would use the combination of Yalden’s and Dick’s and Reiser’s instructional models. The
writer combined these two models to design the materials because the combination reveals a clear and complete stage in designing the materials. Yalden
provided a very complete explanation in the syllabus. Yalden also offered not only to revise and to reassess the materials but also methodological procedures.
According to Yalden, having a syllabus is not the same thing as teaching materials and lesson plans at the read. Dick’s and Reiser’s completes Yalden’s
model by emphasizing instructional goals and objectives, and implementation of instructional activities. Both Yalden and Dick and Reiser propose the revision step
after all the steps are evaluated. There are seven stages in the writer’s model. Those stages are discussed further below.
1. Stage 1
– Diagnosing Learners’ Needs adapting Yalden’s model
In the first step, need surveys are conducted to search and collect the data about learners’ needs. The writer distributed questionnaire and interviewed
the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital. The results of the questionnaire and interview were used in the materials development.
2. Stage 2
– Formulating the Goal and Objectives adapting Dick’s and Reiser’s model
This step aims to determine the intended goals of instructional materials design. Without goals, the teacher will certainly carry out a random set of
activities they may not be of benefit to learners. After stating the goals, the
