Material culture Culture-specific Terms

30 which are SL-oriented, and procedures which are TL-oriented, oblique translation, which are elaborated again into seven procedures, in which the first three are direct translation, and the others are oblique translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation in Venuti, 2000: 84-93. That model is basically designed for translating from French to English; to translate distant languages, such as Indonesian to English, or Javanese to English, more procedures are needed. Therefore, the researcher takes Newmark’s models into account to provide more procedures. Newmark 1988 also develops some procedures to translate foreign texts, only he focuses at level of sentence and smaller units of language. Newmark adds some additional terms such as, transference, which are actually the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s borrowing with focus on meaning rather than style, and naturalisation, which is similar to calque but the pronunciation and morphology of SL are adapted to TL. Newmark 1998: 81-91 also expands Vinay and Darbelnet’s model by combining two, three, or four procedures to generate Newmark’s model which consists of: cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation calque In Vinay and Darbelnet’s model, transposition, modulations, equivalence, and adaptation the last four procedures are the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s. He adds that notes, additions, and glosses are acceptable procedures when differences between SL and TL cultures are obvious and none of the other procedure can transfer the expressions satisfactorily, or when there is ambiguity in the text 1988:91. 31 Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s model of translation procedures are described as follows:

a. Borrowing

Based on Vinay and Darbelnet 1958, borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures in Venuti, 2000: 85. Borrowing is done by directly using foreign terms without formal and semantic modification, e.g., déjà vu borrowed from French into English, orang-utan borrowed from Bahasa Indonesia to English, and tequila borrowed from Mexican Spanish to English. The decision to borrow SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour or taste is a matter of style and consequently of the message.

b. Calque

Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which TL borrows an expression form of SL, but then translates literally each of its elements into TL. This calque may results in 1 lexical calque, in which keeps the structure of the TL, but introduces a new mode of translation, e.g., the calque in translating compliments of the season from English into compliments de la saison in French, or 2 structural calque, which introduces a new construction into TL, e.g., science fiction in English, which is translated into science fiction in French. This procedure is identical to Newmark’s through-translation and loan translation Newmark, 1988: 84, which translates text by substituting linear element of a language into another. Newmark 1988: 84 emphasizes that calque or through- translation is only used when the terms are already recognised terms. The most obvious examples of calque or through-translations are the names of international