The translation procedures of culture-specific terms in on foreign shores.

(1)

ABSTRACT

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

In translation, cultural differences between the source and target language cause major difficulties. Often, cultural differences are characterized by the absence of the relevant source language situation in the culture of the target language. If this problem happens, a translator should employ translation procedures to overcome it in sentences or smaller units of language within the text. One example of texts in which such cultural problems may occur is On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, an anthology of Indonesian poetry written in Bahasa Indonesia which is translated into English by John McGlynn. Thus, this research is conducted to find out procedures to translate culture-specific terms indicating cultural problems.

The research questions then were formulated as: 1) What are the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores? and 2) What are the procedures adopted by McGlynn in translating the culture-specific terms found inOn Foreign Shores?

To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted a qualitative research by using the content analysis. The research data are taken from On Foreign Shores. To answer the first research question, the researcher identified and classified culture-specific terms inOn Foreign Shoresaccording to Newmark’s categorisation (1988). To answer the second research question, the researcher analyzed the procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English by employing procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988).

From the analyses, it can be concluded that: first, there are 23 culture-specific terms found inOn Foreign Shores.Second, there are 5 procedures used to translate culture-specific terms in this anthology. Those procedures are transference, cultural equivalence or adaptation, functional equivalence, descriptive equivalence, and reduction. In fact, functional equivalence is the most frequently procedure used by McGlynn. Therefore, the researcher then addressed several recommendations for: 1) translators to take culture-specific terms and translation procedures into account in cross-cultural translation, 2) ELESP to start developing cross-cultural translation topic in Translation course in order that students of ELESP are aware of cultural problems in translation, and 3) future researchers to analyze other translation procedures that are not found in this research in accordance to cross-cultural translation.

(2)

ABSTRAK

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Dalam penerjemahan, perbedaan budaya antara bahasa sumber dan bahasa sasaran dapat menyebabkan masalah serius. Seringkali, perbedaan budaya ditandai dengan ketiadaan situasi yang relevan menurut bahasa sumber di dalam budaya bahasa sasaran. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, seorang penerjemah harus menggunakan prosedur penerjemahan pada kalimat maupun unit bahasa yang lebih sederhana di dalam naskah. Salah satu contoh naskah di mana masalah ini terdapat adalah On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, sebuah antologi puisi Indonesia yang ditulis dalam Bahasa Indonesia dan diterjemahkan ke dalam Bahasa Inggris oleh John H. McGlynn. Oleh sebab itu, penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menentukan prosedur untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik yang menandakan adanya masalah budaya.

Pertanyaaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab dalam skripsi ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1) Apa saja istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores? dan 2) Prosedur apa saja yang digunakan olehMcGlynn untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores?

Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian kualitatif melalui analisis isi dengan On Foreign Shores sebagai sumber data. Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah pertama, peneliti mengidentifikasi dan mengelompokkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores berdasarkan kategorisasi Newmark (1988). Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti menganalisa prosedur untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores dari Bahasa Indonesia menjadi Bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan prosedur yang dikemukakan oleh Vinay dan Darbelnet(1958) danNewmark(1988).

Berdasarkan analisa data, dapat disimpulkan bahwa: pertama, terdapat 23 istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores. Kedua, terdapat 5 prosedur yang digunakan untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam antologi ini. Prosedur-prosedur tersebut adalah transferensi, kepadanan budaya atau adaptasi, kepadanan fungsional, kepadanan deskriptif, dan reduksi. Kepadanan fungsional adalah prosedur yang paling sering digunakan oleh McGlynn. Pada akhirnya, peneliti mengusulkan beberapa rekomendasi yang ditujukan pada: 1) penerjemah untuk memperhitungkan istilah budaya spesifik dan prosedur penerjemahan dalam penerjemahan antar budaya, 2) Program Studi PBI untuk mengembangkan topik penerjemahan antar budaya dalam mata kuliah Translation, dan 3) calon peneliti selanjutnya untuk menganalisa prosedur penerjemahan lain yang tidak ditemukan pada penelitian ini dalam kaitannya dengan penerjemahan antar budaya.

(3)

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF

CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN

ON FOREIGN SHORES

ASARJANA PENDIDIKANTHESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia 091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(4)

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF

CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN

ON FOREIGN SHORES

ASARJANA PENDIDIKANTHESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnia 091214107

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

vi ABSTRACT

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

To answer both research questions, the researcher conducted a qualitative research by using the content analysis. The research data are taken from On Foreign Shores. To answer the first research question, the researcher identified and classified culture-specific terms inOn Foreign Shores according to Newmark’s categorisation (1988). To answer the second research question, the researcher analyzed the procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores from Bahasa Indonesia into English by employing procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Newmark (1988).

(10)

vii ABSTRAK

Kurnia, Paskalis Damar Aji. 2014. Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On Foreign Shores. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Pertanyaaan-pertanyaan yang akan dijawab dalam skripsi ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut: 1) Apa saja istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores? dan 2) Prosedur apa saja yang digunakan oleh McGlynn untuk menerjemahkan istilah budaya spesifik dalam On Foreign Shores?

(11)

viii

“FOR I CONSIDER THAT THE SUFFERINGS OF THIS

PRESENT TIME ARE NOT WORTH COMPARING WITH

THE GLORY THAT IS TO BE REVEALED TO US”

(ROMANS 8:18)

DEDICATED TO:

THE HOUSE OF JOYO MONAWI

THE HOUSE OF SUTARSOMO

AND

PBI 2009

(12)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to praiseJesus Christ—my life and my love. I truly thank Him for always walking by my side through every single path I take. No words in Earth nor in every realm can describe how grateful I am for having Him in my life

The greatest gratitude of mine goes to the best sponsor I have ever had, Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. Through the very hectic time of my thesis until now, his patience and his favor to give me my independence in writing have been the greatest power for me. Moreover, his advice, comments, suggestions, and corrections were very valuable for me.

In completion of my thesis, I also thankall of lecturers and students of ELESP Sanata Dharma University for everything. I would peculiarly thankIbu Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., M.Trans.St., for kindly being the proofreader of the embryo of my thesis, and Ibu Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., for patiently teaching me to write in English from the basic. I would also like to thank Ibu Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the most caring and the best chairperson of ELESP, andIbuChristina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for being the best academic advisor of my class in ELESP.

For everything, I thankBapakHeribertus Menir Sunarno,IbuElisabet Dwi Rahayu, and Agustina Ria Arini. As my family, they have done everything to me—and now; I must become everything for them. I believe that their prayers and blessings are my power in being good. I also thank the great House of Joyo

(13)

Monawi and House of Sutarsomo for all supports and prayers—especially the late Budhe Maria Magdalena Sri Ekorini, the late Simbah Antonius Dibya Sanjaya, and the late Simbah Chatarina Darmo Suprobo for delivering my prayers to Jesus Christ, who sits with the three of you in heaven.

For every support and companion, I thank the great family of Lembaga Bahasa Universitas Sanata Dharma (all coordinators, all teachers, and all staff), all best friends in Layung, all best friends in LVYWR, and all best friends in Kelompok 11-Pusmalang Barat KKN XLV. For all inspirations, I thank The Devil Wears Prada,Underoath, andPark Chan-wook (even though they might never know). For everything, I peculiarly thank Shela Novitasari, Adit, Mas Ketchup, Budi, Nicko, Ayon, Tunggul, Bayu, Mas Amink, Mas Grandil, Indra,Aldhy,Blacky,Ceper,Mas Sasongko,Liece,Yoga,Devi and Tari (for their generosity), Nana, Tiara, Anggi, Adam, Kojek, Saka, and all comrades whom I cannot mention one by one. I owe them a galaxy.

Finally, I thank everyone who knows me and cares about me—those whom I cannot mention one by one. I would like to remind them that there are no deeds left unrewarded. May all beings be happy.

(14)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v

ABSTRACT... vi

ABSTRAK ... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiv

LIST OF TABLES ... xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvi

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION... 1

A. Research Background... 1

B. Research Problem... 6

C. Problem Limitation... 6

D. Research Objectives ... 8

E. Research Benefits ... 8

F. Definition of Terms ... 10

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 13

A. Theoretical Description ... 13

1. Language, Translations, and Cross-Cultural Communication... 14

a. Type of translation ... 16

b. Process of translation ... 19

c. Form and meaning in translation ... 21

(15)

xii

e. Translation equivalence ... 23

2. Culture-specific Terms ... 24

a. Ecology ... 25

b. Material Culture ... 26

c. Social Culture... 27

d. Organisations, Ideas, Customs ... 27

e. Gestures and Habits ... 28

3. Translation Procedures ... 28

a. Borrowing ... 31

b. Calque ... 31

c. Literal translation ... 32

d. Transposition... 32

e. Modulation ... 32

f. Equivalence... 32

g. Adaptation... 33

h. Transference... 34

i. Naturalization... 34

j. Descriptive equivalence ... 35

k. Synonymy ... 35

l. Reduction and expansion ... 35

m. Couplets ... 36

n. Notes, addition, and glosses... 36

B. Theoretical Framework ... 37

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY... 39

A. Research Method ... 39

B. Research Setting ... 40

C. Research Data... 40

D. Research Instrument ... 41

E. Data Analysis Technique... 43

(16)

xiii

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 49

A. The Discussion of Culture-Specific Terms in Selected Poems Taken FromOn Foreign Shores... 49

1. Ecology ... 50

2. Material Culture... 55

3. Social Culture ... 57

4. Organisations, Ideas, Customs... 64

5. Gestures and Habits ... 66

B. The Discussion of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms inOn Foreign Shores... 70

1. Functional Equivalence ... 71

2. Cultural Equivalence ... 97

3. Descriptive Equivalence ... 102

4. Transference ... 104

5. Reduction... 106

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 110

A. Conclusions ... 110

B. Implications ... 113

C. Recommendations ... 113

REFERENCES ... 115

(17)

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4)... 20 2.2 Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33)... 21

(18)

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Table of Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Newmark (1988))... 42

3.2 Table of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms (Based on Vinay & Darbelnet (1959), Newmark (1988))... 43

4.1 The Ecology Category of Culture-Specific Terms... 54

4.2 The Material Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms... 57

4.3 The Social Culture Category of Culture-Specific Terms... 64

4.4 The Organisations, Ideas, and Customs Category... 66

4.5 The Gestures and Habits Category of Culture-Specific Terms... 68

4.6 The Distribution of Culture-Specific Terms inOn Foreign Shores... 69

4.7 The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure... 96

4.8 The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure... 101

4.9 The Use of Descriptive Equivalence Procedure... 104

4.10 The Use of Transference Procedure... 105

4.11 The Use of Reduction Procedure... 107

(19)

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. Table 3.1...……….. 118 B. Table 3.2...………... 121 C. Transcripts of Poems fromOn Foreign Shores... 127

(20)

1 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher discusses the background of the research. It consists of six parts, namely research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms. The research background discusses the underlying reason why the researcher chose this topic and an introduction of an analysis on the translation of Indonesian poems written by Indonesian poets featured in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetrytranslated by John H. McGlynn.

A. Research Background

Language and culture cannot be separated from human life. Both of them are integral parts of human life. Hymes (1964: 21) states that “speech is so fundamental an activity of a man, language is so integral a part of his culture.” Witherspoon (1980) believes that language and culture are highly interrelated and proposes that cultures cannot be studied without attention to the native language spoken within them, and language cannot be studied in isolation from the cultures in which they are spoken. In addition, language and culture influence one another. Language, in general, is a means of communication for people to interact with other people. Specifically, language is also a means for the culture to share its beliefs, values, and norms. Thus, cultural beliefs, values, and norms can also be found in literary text as a product of language. Therefore, to study the literature as a representation of language or people culture and tradition, people also need to

(21)

know the meaning and definition of certain cultural words or terms that exist in literature of the target culture.

Translation plays an important role in studying the target culture. It enables people to exchange information with others who speak in different languages and come from some different culture. Nida and Taber (1982: 12) state that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language (target language) the closest natural equivalent of the source language message in term of meaning and style. It can be concluded that translation should transfer the real meaning of the source language message instead of transferring only the form. That idea defines what an ideal translation is. However, fulfilling the criteria of the ideal translation is not an easy thing. Based on Larson (1984: 163), cultural differences between the source and target language pose major difficulties for translators. Certain concepts in the source language may have no equivalence in the target language because of differences in aspects, such as geography, customs, beliefs, and various other factors. For example, some Javanese words likemacapat,which means old traditional Javanese verses,paklik,which means the younger brother of one’s parents, budhe, which means the older sister of one’s parents, and surjan, which means traditional Javanese clothes for men, may be difficult to be translated into English because English, the target language does not have cultural equivalences for those words.

The problem of non-equivalence in translation has become a serious threat to translators. Based on Nida and Taber (1974), a translation reaches the highest degree of equivalence when the receptors of the target language respond

(22)

to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language; it is also called dynamic equivalence. Meanwhile, non-equivalence is rooted the untranslatability. The untranslatability itself, based on Catford (1965: 94), occurs when it is impossible to build features of the situation which are functionally relevant to the contextual meaning of the target language. There are two types of untranslatability, linguistic and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability is caused by the failure to find a target language equivalence due to the differences in source language and target language, while cultural untranslatability is caused by the absence of the relevant source language situation in the culture of the target language. Baker (1992: 20) reveals the occurence of non-equivalence in the word level which is defined by the absence of direct equivalence concept in the target language.

To analyze how problems of untranslatability and non-equivalence rooted from the absence of local Indonesian cultural concepts in English, this research focuses on some Indonesian poetry which is translated into English. Poetry is chosen as the means of this research because of its likeliness of being untranslatable, which Jakobson claims as an impact of the form of words that contributes to the construction of the meaning in text (1959: 238). Thus, the researcher considers that translating poetry is not an easy quest. As El-shafey (2012: 12) states that it “is considered the highest forms of translation” as it involves more than simply translating text. Poetry is an extraordinary kind of text; it is the most personal and concentrated of all literary forms, no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any

(23)

other type of text (Newmark, 1988: 163). Therefore, the research only focuses on words which become the first unit of meaning—preceding the sentence.

In conducting this research, the researcher analyzed all poems featured in On Foreign Shores:American Images in Indonesian Poetry (which is going to be referred only as On Foreign Shores later).On Foreign Shores is an anthology

of Indonesian poems telling experience as a poetic record of travels by Indonesian poets through The United States of America, which was published in conjunction with the 1990-1991 Festival of Indonesia in the United States by the Lontar Foundation. This book consists of 69 poems from 21 Indonesian most pioneering poets from several generations. All of those poems are translated into English by McGlynn who also becomes the editor of this book. Damono, in the introduction of this anthology, said that this anthology gives a chance for Indonesian readers through the eyes of fellow Indonesians, who are poets to view The United States of America; while for American readers, this collection offers insight into foreigner’s attitude toward American ways. For all readers, this book presents a study of intercultural exchange between Indonesia and the United States of America.

McGlynn, who translated all poems in On Foreign Shores, finds that culture-bound expressions (e.g., culture-specific terms and onomatopoeic words) become problematic for him because of the lack of cultural correspondences in English. It can be inferred from his statement that “it is impossible to translate” without explicitation, or “without paragraphs of explanation for each items” (1990: 185). Therefore, there are procedures used to translate poems in On

(24)

Foreign Shores. In his effort to accommodate studies of intercultural exchange and its global publication for readers in the United States, McGlynn, who concerns about culture, takes these translation problems into account by carefully addressing questions on how those cultural expressions in the poems which are originally written in Bahasa Indonesia and some Javanese are translated into English. Furthermore, a careful study of applied translation procedures in translating from different cultural background was conducted by the translator to accommodate the reader.

By conducting this research, the researcher expects that the findings of this research will be beneficial in the practical field, as well as in the academic field; moreover, for ‘Translation’ course in English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University, in which the researcher majors English Education. This research, which deals with cross-cultural translation and procedures to translate literary work, is expected to equip Translation lecturers and students with some decent comprehension on how translation procedures are used in general and cultural purpose. In addition, this research is going to provide ELESP students a vivid view on how culture-specific terms become threats in translating English text into Bahasa Indonesia. This research is also expected to be a consideration in designing syllabus used in Translation course. Generally, this research is going to provide real and authentic examples of how translation procedures are applied and analyzed.

(25)

B. Research Problem

Based on the research background, the problems of this research are formulated as follows:

1. What are the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry?

2. What are the procedures adopted by McGlynn in translating the culture-specific terms found in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry?

C. Problem Limitation

Some theories on translation are applicable in general translation. It means that those theories can be applied as the basic or standard principles to translate any text from a language to other language. This research also focuses on translating texts from Bahasa Indonesia into English; specifically on procedures adopted by the translator, John H. McGlynn, to translate culture-specific terms. The researcher also limits the procedures to those models proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) and Newmark (1998).

This research is limited by analyzing only poems which are featured in the anthology of poems entitled On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetryas translated and edited by McGlynn. Those poems are selected because they feature particular numbers of culture-specific term uses in them; those culture-specific terms are mostly Indonesian and Javanese specific terms. All poems in On Foreign Shores are translated by considering the intended

(26)

meaning and reproduction of the syntactic form in TL, yet, neglecting stylistic form of SL in the TL, as seen in the fragment below:

Pada hari yang ketiga

kau siuman dan terjaga

Pada hari yang kelima

kau sudah berganti nama

Pada hari kesebelas

kau cicip udara bebas

Pada hari keduapuluh

putusan jatuh: kau sembuh

(Surachman R.M’sSajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 56)

The fragment of Sajak-Sajak dari Solariumdevices rhyme, as indicated by bolded letters above, to enhance stylistic form of the poem. However, when the poem is translated into English, the rhyme deviced to enhance the style is not transferred. Therefore, only the original meaning and syntactical form remain, as seen in the fragment of the translated version ofSajak-Sajak dari Solariumbelow.

On the third day

you regained consciousness, awoke On the fifth day

you changed your name On the eleventh day you tasted open air

On the twentieth day

the prognosis came: a clean bill of health

(Poems from the Solariums, an English version of Surachman R.M’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium,p. 57)

Considering the fact that poems inOn Foreign Shores are translated by regarding the meaning and literal form only, the researcher also focuses on the transferred meaning and literal form from the SL to the TL. To accommodate that fact and the theories of culture-specific term, this research also limits the data

(27)

which are going to be translated only into word-level and phrase-level terms only. Therefore, the researcher analyzes only culture-specific words and phrases in the SL and their forms in the TL based on their intended meaning.

D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are:

1. To identify the culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetrybased on Newmark’s categorisation.

2. To find out the procedures applied in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry, which are translated by McGlynn based on Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s models.

E. Research Benefits

The researcher is expecting this research to have contribution to academic and practical field, particularly for the development of English language education, for the translators, and for the further research.

1. For the Development of English Education

a. English teachers, especially who teach translation, would know better how translation procedures play roles in translating culture-specific terms in literary work.

b. Students, who learn English, especially about translation, would be able to learn about threats in translation and how translation procedures play roles in translating culture-specific terms in literary work.

(28)

c. The research finding would be a consideration in designing material to put in the syllabus of “Translation” course in English Language Education Study Program.

2. For Translators

a. The research findings will give translators precautious aids on what might be problematic in translating culture-specific terms in literary work.

b. The research findings will give translators, especially who work for Bahasa Indonesia-English translation, more considerations to take in choosing the most appropriate procedures to translate culture-specific terms in literary work.

3. For Further Research

a. This research will contribute to linguistics study, particularly related to the translation of literary work, the translation of culture-specific terms, and translation procedures for general and specific purpose.

b. The research findings will enrich the theories of linguistics which are related to the translation of literary work and the translation of culture-specific terms.

c. The research can be used and referred for other researchers in the future as academic references to conduct further studies dealing with the translation of literary work, especially with the translation of culture-specific terms.

(29)

F. Definition of Terms

In this part, the researcher is going to give some definitions of terms used in this research. The terms which are going to be described are translation, translation procedure, culture-specific terms, source language, target language, source text and target text.

1. Translation

Translation is simply known as a process of transferring message from one language to another language. It is in lines with Newmark’s definition stating that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text (1988: 5). In addition, Catford (1965: 20) states that translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in the target language. Similarly, Nida and Taber (1974: 12) defines translation as the reproduction in receptor language of the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. Therefore, based on the definitions given by some experts above, it can be concluded that translation deals with finding a Target Language equivalence of a Source Language text.

2. Translation Procedure

Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define translation procedures as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the translated part cannot be separated into smaller units to be translated. Besides, Krings (1986: 18) states that translation procedure is "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a

(30)

concrete translation task," and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." From those definitions and explanations above, it can be concluded that translation procedures deals with conscious act that a translator used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller units of language within the text.

In addition, some experts propose several translation procedures to translate texts with or without corresponding equivalence. However, in this research, only translation procedures proposed by Newmark (1988) and Vinay & Darbelnet (1995) will be used.

3. Source Language (SL)

The Source Language or SL is the language in which the text requiring translation is couched (Hervey and Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the original language upon which the translation process happens. In this research, the Source Language is Bahasa Indonesia in which the poems from On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetrywere originally written.

4. Target Language (TL)

The Target Language or TL is the language into which the original text is to be translated (Hervey & Higgins, 1992: 15). In other words, it is the language in which the translation is addressed. TL in this research is the language in which the results of the translation of all poems inOn Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetrywere written. In a more negligible way, the TL mentioned in

(31)

this research is English, in which John H. McGlynn wrote the translation of those poems.

5. Source Text (ST)

Hervey and Higgins define Source Text or ST as the text that requires the translation (1992: 15). It is the text presented in the Source Language that was translated. In this research, the STs are all poems inOn Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry.

6. Target Text (TT)

A Target Text or TT is defined as the text which is a translation of Source Text or the result of translating Source Text (Hervey & Higgins, 1992: 15). It means that TT is a text in Target Language as a result of translating Source Language text. In this study, the TTs are all English version of the poems in On Foreign Shores: American Images in Indonesian Poetry..

7. Culture-specific Terms

Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Furthermore, Newmark (1988: 95) mentions that culture-specific terms “are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated.” Newmark, then, categorizes culture-specific terms into five categories as follows: a) ecology, b) material culture, c) social culture, d) organizations, customs, ideas, and e) gestures and habits.

(32)

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The contents of this chapter are to explain the theories related to the conduct of this research. This chapter consists of two parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the theories of translation, culture-specific terms, translation procedures, and poems underlying this research. The theoretical framework provides theories to solve the research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

In this part, the researcher discusses three major parts of theoretical description, namely the language, culture, and cross-cultural communication theories, the culture-specific term theories, and the translation procedure theories. The language, culture, and cross-cultural communication theories contain theories which embrace the scope of the translation itself, types of translation, process of translation, translation shift, untranslatability, translation equivalence. Separately, the culture-specific term theories embrace the definition of which and the categorisation; while, the translation procedure theories encompass procedures proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Newmark.

The theoretical description begins with the discussion of the theories of language, culture, and cross-cultural communication, including the types of translation, process of translation, translation shift, untranslatability, and

(33)

translation equivalence. The next part concerns with further theories related to the terms that will be used in analyzing part of this research, namely culture-specific terms, which include categories of cultural words, and translation procedure, which are limited to Newmark’s and Vinay and Darbelnet’s models only. Subsequently, the culture-specific terms are described, in which it encompassed two sections, namely the definition of culture-specific terms and the categories of culture-specific terms. Afterwards, translation procedures are also described in two sections, namely the definition of translation procedures and the types of translation procedures as proposed by Newmark and Vinay and Darbelnet.

1. Language, Translation, and Cross-cultural Communication

Translation, in this modern situation, is not merely about transferring meaning between texts from one language to another language. Based on Snell-Hornby (1990), translation studies have moved from translation as text to as culture and politics. It is implied that translation has gone beyond the text itself – there are several cultural and politic concerns to be taken into account in translation. Munday (2001: 125) also clarifies that comparisons between original texts and the translations do not consider the text in its cultural environment. He adds that translation goes beyond language and focuses on the interaction between translation and culture, on an account where culture impacts and constrains translation, and on the issues of context, history and conventions. Therefore, culture has a major role in translation.

In translation, understanding the culture is definitely a serious concern. Therefore, to understand translation, it is necessary to understand culture.

(34)

Different places in the world may have different culture. Each culture has specific differentiator to differentiate to other cultures. Furthermore, certain culture is differentiated from another culture by language. As Katan (1999: 75) states that the key to cultural reality was in the lexicon, it is implied that words of a language are what differentiate cultures. Language itself could be understood with reference to a context of culture (Malinowski, 1923). He also states that language is essentially rooted in the reality of culture.

In the light of culture, language must be explained with constant reference. A language could only be understood when these two contexts implicitly or explicitly clear to the addressee or interlocutors. Therefore, the role of translation is to make the source text (ST) comprehensible to the target text (TT) readers by providing them context. According to Malmkjaer (2005: 10), the relationship between the linguistic form and the referent shows that “language does not put names on things, but on concepts.” It reflects that the meaning of word is conceptual-based. In the light of culture, it represents some concepts that exist in certain culture. The problem is some concepts may exist in one culture but some may not exist in other cultures. Therefore, the meaning of certain words in one culture cannot be transferred into other culture’s word directly. Jakobson (2004: 139) explains that the problem of equivalence in meaning between words in different language, as a differentiator of culture, happens because there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units. For example, the wordgotong royong, a tradition to work together within a society in Indonesia, has no

(35)

equivalence in English, and the wordjoglo, a traditional type of house in Javanese tradition, has no equivalence in English as well.

a. Type of translation

There are several types of translation. Catford (1965:20-26) differentiates them based on extent, level, and rank. He defines translation, as follow:

1. Full vs. PartialTranslation.

This distinction relates to the extent of SL text which is submitted to the translation process. In a full translation, the entire text is submitted to the translation process, which means all part of the SL text is replaced by the TL material. In a partial translation, some part or parts of the SL text are left untranslated. It is common to have this kind of treatment in most literary translation.

2. Total vs. RestrictedTranslation

This distinction relates to the language involved in the translation. Total translation is best defined as the replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis, which may result in replacement of SL sounds or spellings by non-equivalent TL sounds or spellings. On the other hand, restricted translation is defined as the replacement of SL textual material by equivalent TL textual material at only one level. It implies that translation is performed only at the phonology (the sounds) or the spellings, or only at one level between grammar and lexis.

(36)

3. Rank of Translation

The third type of differentiation in translation relates to the rank in a grammatical (or phonological) hierarchy at which translation equivalence is established. In normal total translation, the grammatical units between which translation equivalences can be at any rank, while in a long text, the ranks where translation equivalences occur are constantly changing. It can be sentence-to-sentence, group-to-group, word-to-word, etc.

The popular termsfree,literal, andword-for-wordtranslation also partly correlate with this distinction. A free translation is always unbounded between larger units than the sentence. Aword-for-word translation generally means what it says; it is essentially at word-rank. Aliteral translation may start from a word-for-wordtranslation, but it makes changes in TL grammar. An example adopting Catford (1965: 26) can be seen below:

SL text Siapa nama Anda?

TL text 1 Who name of yours? (Word-for-word) 2 Who is your name? (Literal)

3 What is your name? (Free)

The relation between free, literal, and word-for-word translation can be seen as written above. Word-for-word translation performed in word rank, literal translation performed in a higher level of word-for-word translation by the change in grammar; whilefreetranslation seeks further than any rank beforehand.

On the other hand, based on the purpose of translation, Brislin (1976: 3-4) categorizes translation into these following types:

(37)

1. PragmaticTranslation

It refers to the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of the information that was meant to be conveyed in the SL form. It is not concerned with other aspects of the SL. The example of pragmatic translation is the translation of procedure to do something, such as safety flight procedure on an airlines and procedures of usage in electronic devices.

2. Aesthetic-PoeticTranslation

This refers to translation in which the translator takes into account the affect, emotion, and feeling of an original agnate version, the aesthetic form used by the original author in SL, as well as any information in the message. The example ofaesthetic-poetic translation is the translation of sonnet, rhyme, heroic couplet, dramatic dialogues, and novel.

3. EthnographicTranslation

It refers to translation whose purpose is to explicate the SL and TL culture. Translators have to be sensitive to the way words are used. Accordingly, translators must know how the words fit into cultures.

4. LinguisticTranslation

It concerns with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the SL. It also deals with the SL grammatical form. The example of which is the language in computer program or machine translator.

(38)

In addition, Brislin (as cited in Choliludin, 2005: 26-29) also states that based on the kinds of text to being translated, there are two types of translation, namely factual translation and literary translation. Factual translation refers to translating to convey information with precision, without emotion or feeling of the translators but only based on real facts, i.e. translating scientific fields, reports, newspaper, etc.Literary translation refers to the translation of art works in which the translators involve his or her emotion or feeling and the translators have a perk of being subjective. The example of which is translating poems, drama, novel, etc.

Larson (1984: 15) proposes that translation is classified into two main types, namelyform-based translation andmeaning-based translation.Form-based translation mostly follows the SL form; it is commonly known as literal translation. Meaning-based translation attempts to make every effort to communicate the meaning of the SL text in the natural form of TL. It is also known as idiomatic translation.

b. Process of translation

Based on Larson (1984: 3), the goal of a translator is “an idiomatic translation which makes every effort to communicate their meaning of the SL text into the natural forms of the receptor language.” Furthermore, he adds that translation is concerned with a study of the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the SL, which is analyzed in order to determine its meaning. The discovered meaning is later re-expressed and/or re-constructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language as well as in its cultural context. Therefore,

(39)

process of translation is not merely transferring the SL style directly to the TL form, but it is transferring the SL meaning into TL meaning and reconstructing it in the closest form of the TL. The following diagram is representing Larson’s process of translation.

SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE

Discover the meaning Re-express the meaning

Figure 2.1.Larson’s Translation Process (1984: 4)

On the other hand, Nida and Taber (1982: 33) categorize translation process into three stages. The first stage is “analysis”, in which the surface structure is analyzed in terms of (1) the grammatical relationship, and (2) the meaning of the words and the combinations of words. The second stage is “transfer”, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of of ther translator from SL to TL. The third stage is “restructuring”, in which the transferred is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the TL. The following diagram illustrates the process of translation based on Nida and Taber (1988: 33).

Text to be translated

Translation

(40)

A (Source) B (Receptor)

(Analysis) (Restructuring)

X Transfer Y

Figure 2.2.Nida and Taber’s Translation Process (1988: 33) c. Form and meaning in translation

Larson (1984: 3) states that translation is basically a change of form, which are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It concerns with the structural part of a language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech, or in other words, it is the language of daily formal communication. In addition, Baker (1992: 24) says that “the form of the source language in translation is replaced by the equivalent lexical item of the receptor language.” The problem is not every particular form in the SL has lexical equivalence in the TL.

Based on Larson (1984: 3), translation goes from thr SL form into the TL form by the way of semantic structure. In making a translation, a translator transfers the meaning of the SL text. Therefore, changes of form in the TL should not change the meaning of the SL text; the meaning of the SL text is to keep constantly. It refers to the characteristic of a language in which the same emaning component occurs in several surface structure of lexical items.

The initial thing to do in translation process is to understand the complete meaning of the SL text. There are several kinds of meaning. Nida and Taber (1982:34) classifies meaning into two classes, namely referential and

(41)

connotativemeaning. Referential meaning refers to words as symbols of objects, event, abstracts and relations. Connotative meaning refers to how language users react to the words and their combinations. By knowing the meaning of the SL text, the translators are able to produce particular meaning to the TL and transfer the meaning effectively into the TL environment. Therefore, well-transferred meanings are easier to be understood by the target readers.

d. Untranslatability

There is a problem where some texts cannot be translated from ST into TT found in the selected poems which are going to be analyzed; a problem which mostly exists because of cultural absence of some cultural concept in American culture and most English speaking countries (e.g.: gayam, a local food whose concept only exists in Indonesian culture and is impossible to translate directly into English). This problem is called as untranslatability. According to Catford (1965), there are two kinds of untranslatability. The first is called Linguistic Untranslatability, which happens when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in TL, and the second is called Cultural Untranslatability, which happens when there is an absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature.

However, untranslatabilities can be translated indirectly by transferring the source item and explaining it if no parallel item can be found in TL and no compensatory effect to produce within the same paragraph (Newmark, 1981). Each variety of meaning in a SL can be translated both directly and indirectly into a TL. Therefore, every single item is translatable using that principle. Jakobson (2004) also explains, in the light of overcoming untranslatabilities, that even if

(42)

there is no one-to-one correspondence between signs across language, full semantic meaning of the words can still be expressed by that principle.

Untranslatabilities can be a source of information streams in translation. Nida (1959) states that non-correspondence of grammatical and lexical categories, as the main cause of untranslatabilities, is the main source of information loss and gain in translation when SL category lacks information which is obligatory expressed in the corresponding TL category. Furthermore, untranslatabilities can also be a source of information streams in translating between different cultures since language is an integral part of culture. Based on that situation, Snell-Hornby (1988: 42) suggests that a translator needs not only proficiency in two languages, but also be at home in those two cultures.

e. Translation Equivalence

Equivalence is not the same with correspondence, although those terms have slight similarities. Correspondence happens in comparing two language systems and describing differences and similarities contrastively. While equivalence happens when there are equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts (Koller, 1979, in Munday, 2008: 47). Popovic (1976) explains further about equivalence as he defines four types of equivalence (in Bardenstein, 2005): 1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level of

both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation.

2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of ‘the elements of paradigmatic expressive axes, i.e. the elements of grammar.

(43)

3) Stylistic (syntacmatic) equivalence, where there is ‘functional equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning’.

4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape.

Nida (1964:162-165) distinguishes two types of equivalences, formal and dynamic.Formal equivalence‘focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content’. The concern of this type is such correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to concept.Dynamic equivalence,on the other hand, is based on the principle of equivalence effect, where the relationship between the receiver and message should be the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message.

2. Culture-specific Terms

Newmark (1988: 94) defines culture as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.” Furthermore, he distinguishes languages into ‘cultural’, ‘universal’, and ‘personal’ language. However, the more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (e.g., flora and fauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, and therefore creates translation problems. Those ‘cultural’ words is later mentioned as culture-specific terms. On the other hand, Baker (1992: 21) defines culture-specific items as abstract and concrete concepts in the ST which are totally unknown in target culture. Due to its unknown state in target culture, there are some factors that influence translator’s choice of

(44)

procedures in translating culture-specific term to avoid mistranslation or information loss.

In translating culture-specific term, a translator must recognize those cultural words initially. Newmark (1988: 95) states that “most 'cultural' words are easy to detect” because they are particular-language-associated and cannot be literally translated, however, “many cultural customs are described in ordinary language where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent.” Furthermore, he categorizes cultural words into five categories, namely, (1) ecology, (2) material culture, (3)social culture,(4)organizations, ideas, customs, and also (5)gestures and habits(1988: 95-102).

a. Ecology

Newmark (1988: 96-97) states that geographical features can be normally distinguished from other cultural terms in that they are usually value-free, politically and commercially. Newmark’s examples of this category are the local words for plains in many countries (i.e., ‘prairies’, ‘steppes’, ‘tundras’, ‘pampas’, ‘savannahs’, ‘llampos’, ‘campos’, ‘paramos’, ‘bush’, ‘veld’) with strong elements of their local colours. Their familiarity is a function of the importance and geographical or political proximity of their countries. These words is normally transferred, with the addition of a brief culture-free third term or explanation where necessary in the text. Mostly the examples of this category are flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills. In On Foreign Shores, the example of ecological culture-specific terms can be found in Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi

(45)

Atlantik, as found in the word gayam, a local edible fruit found mostly in Java; and daun ketapang, leaves from almond trees which grow near the seashore in most area in Indonesia, as found in Subagio Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab.

b. Material culture

Newmark (1988: 97-98) makes four sub-categories of material culture category, namely, food, clothes, houses, and transports. Food is considered the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms cause the widest variety of translation procedures, e.g., ‘zabaglione’, ‘sake’, ‘kaiserschmarren.’ Traditionally, national costumes when distinctive are not translated, 2.g., sari, kimono, yukata, sarong. Clothes as cultural terms can be explained in TL if the generic noun of classifier is added to indicate the part of body that is covered. Furthermore, in many language communities, there are typical houses which remain untranslated, e.g., ‘palazzo’, ‘hotel’, ‘bungalow’, ‘hacienda’, or ‘joglo.’ In addition, names of various carriages and transportation are often used to provide local colours for prestige. However, an accurate description is needed to precede or follow the transferred word. The examples of ‘transport’ sub-category are rickshaw, Mouton, Chalice, etc. In Linus Suryadi AG’s Central Park and Darmanto Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, culture-specific terms which are categorized into material culture are found, i.e., kopiah, a ceremonial hat worn by Indonesian Muslim men, which belongs to terms for clothes sub-category, and getek, a traditional raft made from bamboos, which belongs to terms for transportations sub-category.

(46)

c. Social culture

Newmark (1988: 98-99) also proposes that social culture category refers to words that indicate particular work and leisure activity or product of cultures, e.g., ‘ajaki amah’, ‘condotttere’, ‘biwa’, ‘sithar’, ‘raga’, ‘reggae’, ‘rock.’ Examples given by Newmark (1988: 95) show that local music terms, music instruments, and music genre (e.g., sithar and biwa—Indian traditional string instrument, raga—Indian melodic mode, reggae—Jamaican music genre) also belong to this category. In Darmanto Yatman’sMelintasi Atlantik, there are some examples of culture-specific term which belong to social culture category; i.e., megatruh,bapak pocung,anddandanggula,which are Javanese traditional songs.

d. Organisations, ideas, and customs

Based on Newmark (1988: 99-102), organisations, ideas, and customs terms come from political, social, legal, historical, religious, and artistic terms. Names of several parliaments are not readily translatable, e.g.,Storting(Norway), Sejm (Poland), Riksdag (Sweden), Eduskunta (Finland). Organisations’ names also need a study to translate, whether they need appropriate functional or descriptive terms to explain. Those also include historical institute terms and international terms, e.g., FAO, UNESCO, and UNICEF. Religious terms, mostly Christianity, provide words which needs translation, e.g., Pharisees. Name of buildings, museums, theatres, opera houses, are likely to be translated, since they form part of street plans and addresses. Words likeSekolah Rakyat as a historical institute term in Indonesia is an example of it, which is found in Taufiq Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco.

(47)

e. Gestures and habits

Based on Newmark (1988: 102), “for ‘gestures and habits’ there is a distinction between description and function which can be made where necessary in ambiguous case.” Some gestures and habits exist and are practiced among people in particular culture, however, the same gestures and habits do not exist in other cultures, e.g., ‘cock a snook’, ‘spitting.’ Ongkang-ongkang is a local Javanese gesture which belongs to this category, which can be found in Surachman R.M.’sHari Tua Mister Gilbert.

3. Translation Procedures

Translation procedures are important matters for translators. Suryawinata and Haryanto (2003: 67) define it as the way to translate words, phrases, clauses, or even the whole sentence if the translated part cannot be separated into smaller units to be translated. Furthermore, Krings (1986: 18) defines it as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task," and Loescher (1991: 8) defines translation procedure as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." Translation procedures employ consciousness to help translating problematic text; translator’s consciousness makes it difference from any non-strategic procedures of translation. Newmark (1988: 81) differentiates translation procedures to translation methods. He states that “translation methods relate to whole texts,” while translation procedures “are used for sentences and the smaller units of language” (1998: 81). It can be concluded that translation procedures deal with

(48)

conscious act that a translator used to overcome problems in sentences or smaller units of language within the text.

Furthermore, Benjamin (1923) explains that translation can never be completely adequate to foreign text (in Venuti, 2000: 20). Translation allowed the translator to choose between adomesticating method, an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to TL cultural value, “bringing the author back home,” and a foreignising method, an ethno-deviant pressure on those values to register linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, “sending the reader abroad.” Venuti later adds some explanations to define foreignisation and domestication. Foreignisation aims to preserve the differences of the source culture, while domestication focuses on replacing the source culture with the target culture (Venuti, 2000: 468). Translators should also consider their tendency and possibility whether to foreignise or domesticate their translation.

There are many models of procedures proposed by experts to help translating problematic SL text into the TL. However, Vinay and Darbelnet’s models proposed in “A Methodology for Translation” and Newmark’s models proposed in “A Textbook of Translation” are the most familiar procedures in modern translation. Therefore, in this research, the researcher is going to use Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s models.

Vinay and Darbelnet’s model is the most familiar procedure in modern translation. In their journal “A Methodology of Translation” which is originally written in French, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) elaborate two procedures to translate from SL to TL. Those procedures are direct translation, procedures

(49)

which are SL-oriented, and procedures which are TL-oriented, oblique translation, which are elaborated again into seven procedures, in which the first three are direct translation, and the others are oblique translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence,andadaptation (in Venuti, 2000: 84-93). That model is basically designed for translating from French to English; to translate distant languages, such as Indonesian to English, or Javanese to English, more procedures are needed.

Therefore, the researcher takes Newmark’s models into account to provide more procedures. Newmark (1988) also develops some procedures to translate foreign texts, only he focuses at level of sentence and smaller units of language. Newmark adds some additional terms such as, transference, which are actually the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s borrowing with focus on meaning rather than style, and naturalisation, which is similar to calque but the pronunciation and morphology of SL are adapted to TL. Newmark (1998: 81-91) also expands Vinay and Darbelnet’s model by combining two, three, or four procedures to generate Newmark’s model which consists of: cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation (calque In Vinay and Darbelnet’s model), transposition, modulations, equivalence,andadaptation (the last four procedures are the same with Vinay and Darbelnet’s). He adds thatnotes, additions, andglosses are acceptable procedures when differences between SL and TL cultures are obvious and none of the other procedure can transfer the expressions satisfactorily, or when there is ambiguity in the text (1988:91).

(50)

Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s model of translation procedures are described as follows:

a. Borrowing

Based on Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures (in Venuti, 2000: 85). Borrowing is done by directly using foreign terms without formal and semantic modification, e.g., déjà vu (borrowed from French into English), orang-utan (borrowed from Bahasa Indonesia to English), and tequila (borrowed from Mexican Spanish to English). The decision to borrow SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour or taste is a matter of style and consequently of the message.

b. Calque

Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which TL borrows an expression form of SL, but then translates literally each of its elements into TL. This calque may results in (1) lexical calque, in which keeps the structure of the TL, but introduces a new mode of translation, e.g., the calque in translating compliments of the seasonfrom English intocompliments de la saison in French, or (2) structural calque, which introduces a new construction into TL, e.g.,science fiction in English, which is translated into science fiction in French. This procedure is identical to Newmark’s through-translation and loan translation (Newmark, 1988: 84), which translates text by substituting linear element of a language into another. Newmark (1988: 84) emphasizes that calque or through-translation is only used when the terms are already recognised terms. The most obvious examples of calque or through-translations are the names of international

(51)

organisations, which are known by their acronyms, which may remain English and internationalisms (UNESCO, FAO, OPEC).

c. Literal translation

Literal translation or also known as word for word translation is a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 86), e.g., the clauseSaya suka film in SL (Bahasa Indonesia) is translated into I like movie in TL (English), or the phraseMereka adalah polisiis translated intoThey are police.

d. Transposition

Transposition involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 88). Newmark (1988: 85) also adds that it involves a change in grammar from SL to TL, as he calls this procedure a shift (by borrowing the same term introduced by Catford).

e. Modulation

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) define modulation as a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective, and very often of category of thought (in Venuti, 2000: 89, and Newmark, 1988: 88-89)

f. Equivalence

Vinay and Darbelnet also state that equivalence involves substituting SL text with its functional equivalence in the TL. In other words, the same situation can be rendered by the two texts of SL and TL using completely different stylistic and structural methods. The common cases of this procedure are onomatopoeic

(52)

expressions, e.g., kukuruyuk (the sound of a rooster in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent tocock-a-doodle-doo in English,kwek (the sound of a duck in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent to quack in English, dor (the sound of a gun in Bahasa Indonesia) is equivalent to bang in English, and wan (the sound of a dog in Japanese) is equivalent towoofin English. This procedure is also commonly used in translating idioms, e.g., Bagai pinang dibelah dua in Bahasa Indonesia is equivalent toTwo peas in a podin English, or Bagai makan buah simalakama in Bahasa Indonesia is equivalent to Between the devil and the deep blue sea in English. (1958, in Venuti, 2000: 90).

This procedure is also referred as functional equivalence in Newmark. This procedure is applied to cultural words and it requires the use of culture-free words, sometimes with new specific terms (Newmark, 1988: 83). This procedure neutralises and generalises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular explanation. Functional equivalence is a cultural componential analysis and considered as the most effective way of translating because it “deculturalises” a cultural word, e.g. baccalaureat (French) is translated into French secondary school leaving exam in English, or Sejm (Polish) is translated into Polish parliamentin English.

g. Adaptation

Adaptation is an effort of creating cultural equivalent between two different situations. It happens when the situation being referred to by the the SL message is unknown in the TL culture; therefore, translators have to create a situation that can be considered as being equivalent (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958).

(53)

This procedure is also called “Cultural Equivalence” by Newmark (1988: 82-83). Cultural equivalence is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. The translation uses are limited, since they are not accurate. However, they have greater pragmatic effect than culturally neutral terms, e.g. the phrase Montecrito (Italian) is translated into the English word Westminster, the termcafé-pause(French) is translated into English phrase coffee break, the term carte a’ identity (French) is translated into English phrase car license (Newmark, 1988: 83); the phrase Dear Sir on the beginning of a letter written in English is translated into Dengan hormat in a letter written in Bahasa Indonesia; the word rugby in American English is translated into Sepakbola Amerikain Bahasa Indonesia (Machali, 2000:6).

h. Transference

Transference, or commonly known as loan word, is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure. It includes transliteration related to the conversion of different alphabets of the SL, e.g. Russian, Arabic, Greek, and Chinese, into the TL alphabets, in this term English (Newmark, 1988: 82).

i. Naturalisation

Naturalisation succeeds the process of transference and adapts the SL word initially to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL, e.g.humeur,thatcherismein French;Performanz,Exhalationin German; akselerasi, informasi, naturalisasi in Bahasa Indonesia (Newmark, 1988: 82).

(1)

benar jadi fast

sementara umurku : as I grew older:

pelangi yang kembang semenit lalu the rainbow that bloomed a minute ago

habis berguguran semenit berikutnya. perished the minute after.

Page 136 Page 137

Sepasang Turis

A Tourist Couple

Written by Frans Nadjira

(On Foreign Shores, p. 138)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 139)

Kepada istrinya dia berkata: He said to his wife

Di atas kursi dorong From his wheel chair

telah kubagikan hidupku I have divvied my life

sepotong-sepotong bit by bit

(sebelum bersin (before sneezing

tercium bau lumut he caught the smell of mildew

mirip bau mesiu so like the smell of gunpowder

sewaktu naik pasang) at the shot of the gun)

Kita tak menemukan yang beda, ternyata

We can not tell difference, in fact

Bunga-bunga seperti ini juga ada di Vietnam

There are flowers like this in Viet Nam, too.

(ketika bersin, jahitan di lambung terasa nyeri)

(sneezing, he winces from the stitches in his side)

Apa? Permainan nyawa? What is this? A fight to the finish?

Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam.

The gods on this island are not averse to cockfights.

Lututku. Mereka gemetar lagi. My calves. They’re shaking again.

Diamkan. Kita berhenti rindu mencari.

Give them a rest. We cease our longing to search.

(suara suara anjing berebut

(the turtle crawls from the dark sea

isi perut seekor penyu dogs yelp in competition

merangkak dari gelap laut)

for its trove)

Teruslah mendongeng tentang dewata, Kau.

Go on, You. Go on telling your stories about gods.

(2)

tak ada ketakutan. Kelainan jiwa

without fear. Insanity

dan bulan yang tak beringat karena

and a moon without memory

kutembakkan meriam ke arahnya.

for the shot I fired in its direction.

Berahi yang percuma. Tak percaya.

Futile passion. Disbelief.

Bulan di sini menciut The moon here shrinks

setiap naga melenggang ke arahnya.

as serpents swing in its direction.

Menjauh lampu lampu kapal terbang

The lights of the plane fade in the distance

Terdengar suara mencebur There omes the sound of a splash

Roda kursi yang kosong An empty wheel chair

Terbenam dalam pasir Buried in the sand

Page 138 Page 138

Kidung Putih

White Ballad

Written by Abdul Hadi

(On Foreign Shores, p. 154)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 155)

Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingan debu

Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of the dust

bersilengking pada kayu (musim panas datang

whistling ‘round branches (the summer arrives,

berduaan dengan angin si gender) bunga-bunga

the gamelan resounds) flowers

menahan bibirnya dari ciuman (gerimis avert their lips from kisses (and on the cheek

di pipi) — berjalan dari taman itu kala akhir

a drizzle) — leaving the garden

musim semi (kau senandungkan matahari,

bayang-at spring’s end (you sing of the sun and images

bayang pohon tua tak berdaun) terusir of old and leafless trees) expelled

(dan di antara warwer hujan yang tiba-tiba) terbangun

(and with the whoosh of a sudden rain) awake

gelisah.... in anxiousness....

(3)

Dini Hari Musim Semi

Early Spring Morning

Written by Abdul Hadi

(On Foreign Shores, p. 160)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 161)

Aku ingin bangun dini hari, melihat fajar putih

I want to rise in the early hours, to see the whit dawn

memecahkan kulit-kulit kerang yang tertutup —

break open theoyster shells —

Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yang letih itu

As sleep approaches I carve the listless moon’s light

yangmenyelinap dalam semak-semak salju terakhir,

hiding in thebushes of the last snow,

ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahatkan padanya

I carve on it a soothing lullaby

sebelum matahari memasang kaca berkilauan

before the sun erects its shimmering mirror

Ah, tapi antara gelap dan terang, ada dan tiada

But between dark and light, being and not

Waktu selalu melimpahi langitsepi dengan kabut dulu

Time floods the quiet sky with its past haze

lalu angin perlahan-lahan dan ribut memancar lagi

while winds slowly but noisily sweep in the morning

— burung-burung hari ini, sedang musim dingin yang hanyut

— birds today, so winter fades

masih abadi seperti hari kemarin yang mengiba

yet remains eternal, wistful

harus memakan beratus-ratus masa lampauku

devouring the hundreds of my yesterdays

Page 160 Page 161

Lanskap 1971 untuk Angela

Davis

Landscape for Angela Davis,

1971

Written by Abdul Hadi (On Foreign Shores, p. 162)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 163)

Inilah senja yang kujanjikan padamu dan mega

This is the twilight I promised you as clouds

melelehkan darahnya di udara mutlak, kota menanti

drip blood in an empty sky, the city awaits

burung-burung raksasa kuning tak pulang menjuntaikan

the vultures that do not return to spill food from

paruhnya, agar perutnya yang lapar tak jadi garang

their breaks causing guts to growl, to heave in anger

dan bisa berteriak lagi and once more roar

(4)

yang panjang after the invasion of cholera

menyerang dari laut membentuk bulan jadi jingga

from the sea turned the moon orange

dalam gugusan angin laut yang beku, tiada ubahnya

in a clump of frozen sea winds, no different from the gods

seperti para dewa yang putus asa who without hope celebrate in the heavens and

berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya ke rimba-rimba

beat their drums in the forest

Inilah saatnya setelah perang saudara dan gempa bumi

This is the moment after civil war and quakes

mengusir mereka yang kini tiada berumah lagi

have chased away the newly homeless, changing them

dan akan menjadi pejalan menempuh gang-gang gelap

to passersby in darkened ways

menempuh ladang-ladang musim panas dan menyanyi lalu menjotoskan

who sing while passing through summer fields then belt out

kesia-siaannya mencari saudara-saudaranya yang hilang

the futility of searching for their lost kin.

berduaan atau berenam menyanyi garang bagai angsa

in twos, in sixes they squawk like geese

menatap syorga yang malang dan dewa-dewa yang putus asa

stare at the calamitous sky and useless gods

mabok menari bersama awan hitam memuntahkan serapahnya lagi

in drunken dance withblackened clouds spewing curses

perempuan-perempuan meratap bagai perajurit-perajurit yang luka

as women wail like wounded soldiers knowing the next moment

belum mati. Sedang sejam lagi udara bakal beku

is death. While in an hour the sky will freeze.

Inilah senja yangkujanjikan padamu dan mega

This is the twilight I promised to you with heavy clouds

tebal seakan sukmaku yang menyeret benua-benua

a mirror of my soul dragging off continents

ke jazirah sepi dan perutnya yang lapar

to the silent peninsula and my hungry stomach

jadi garang dan berteriak lagi rises and roars once more:

bunuhlah aku! Dan surya hanya menanti

kill me! While the sun waits only for

malam hari night to fall

(5)

Central Park

Written by Linus Suryadi

(On Foreign Shores, p. 164)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 165)

Ada seseorang suster berdansa riang A nun dancers happily

Bermain di atas sepatu rodanya on roller skates

Dia gengsot di lapangan terbuka chug-a-lugs in the open lot

Tawanya renyah gadissweet seventeen and laughs like a girl of sweet seventeen

Dua orang suster berkerudung putih Two nuns in white habits

Ngebut dengan mobilnya amat kencang speed past in their car

Tawanya ngikik bagaikan kuda binal and neigh like wild mares

Yang kepingin ditumpaki pejantannya in need of stallions on their back

Dan seorang bishop menawarkanice juice Complete in holy vestments

Lengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannya a bishop plies sno-cones

Perutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dan anggur

his stomach massive from excess wine and cheese

Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepala his miter askew on top of his head

Lihat! Anak-anak kecil bersorak kegirangan And all the kids scream in glee

Mereka ketemu tontonan ramah dan baik hati

for this free and safe attraction

Mereka dapat bagian. Mereka dapat ciuman They get a share and a kiss as well

Suster dan bishop itu beroleh Firdausnya kembali

The nun and bishop find Paradise lost

Tiba-tiba udara dingin. Kabut pun turun Suddenly the air turns cold. Fog also falls

Dan lelampuan mobil menyala waktu jalannya

and car lights burn time

Orang-orang tak bisa melihat dari dekat as objects lose their form

Alhamdulillah! Yesus ada di antara para umat

My God! Jesus is among His flock.

Page 164 Page 165

Instrumentalia

American Instrumental

Written by Eka Budianta

(On Foreign Shores, p. 174)

Translated by John H. McGlynn (On Foreign Shores, p. 175)

Malam-malamku diCahuenga My nights in Cahuenga

Mengalir dalam darah Flow in my blood

Sisa-sisa parfumHollywood Lingers of Hollywood’s scent

Larut ke dalam paru-paru Dissolve in my lungs

Setiap kali thermador tua Each time the ancient heater

(6)

Bukit-bukitGriffith The Griffith hills

Masih ingatkah engkau Can you still remember my shivers

Tatkala aku menggigil When coming home from work at 5 AM

Pulang kerja jam 5 pagi

Tanpa mantel tersuruk di bangku With no overcoat, hunched on the bench

Menunggu bis pertama kedowntown? Awaiting the first bus to downtown?

Kuli yang miskin itu The poor old coolie

Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila Crosslegged, speaks

Diputarnya pita ingatan: Playing memory’s tape:

Gunung-gunung karang diWyoming Limestone mountains in Wyoming

Danau-danau membeku diColorado Frozen lakes in Colorado

Anak burung robin terbuang diNebraska A baby robin thrown from its nest in Nebraska

Malam-malamku diCahuenga My nights in Cahuenga

Menyurutkan sukmaku dalam darah Drag down my spirit in blood

Sampai keUtah, South Dakota Up to Utah, to South Dakota

Kemudian terbujur diMinnesota Finally to Minnesota, stretching ahead

Negeri 10.000 danau Land of 10,000 Lakes

Yang menyuguhkan secangkir air mata Offering a cup of tears

Berhentilah, kuli Stop now, coolie

Kita memang punya duka Yes, we may have pain

Tapi juga tanah air, tulang But we also have a land and bones

Dan semangat untuk mengabdi And the spirit as well to serve

Yang sering bikin kita bagai menara That often makes us into towers

Berdiri memancarkan sinar Standing and throwing off light

Di atas perasaan tak berharga On top of feeling of worthlessness

The translation procedures of culture-specific terms in on foreign shores.

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF

CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN

ON FOREIGN SHORES

THE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF

CULTURE-SPECIFIC TERMS IN

ON FOREIGN SHORES

“FOR I CONSIDER THAT THE SUFFERINGS OF THIS

PRESENT TIME ARE NOT WORTH COMPARING WITH

THE GLORY THAT IS TO BE REVEALED TO US”

(ROMANS 8:18)

DEDICATED TO:

THE HOUSE OF JOYO MONAWI

THE HOUSE OF SUTARSOMO

AND

PBI 2009

Sepasang Turis

A Tourist Couple

Kidung Putih

White Ballad

Dini Hari Musim Semi

Early Spring Morning

Lanskap 1971 untuk Angela

Davis

Landscape for Angela Davis,

1971

Central Park

Central Park

Instrumentalia

American Instrumental

Parts

Dokumen yang terkait

Translation Procedures In Translating Information Technology Terms In Sony Ericsson W150i’s User Guidebook

Translation Procedures of Cultural Terms Found In Sejarah Bilingual For Students of Senior High School

The Translation Procedures of Economic Terms Found in The Translation of N. Gregory Mankiw’s Principles Of Economics into Haris Munandar’s Pengantar Ekonomi

A Translation Analysis Of Nokia 2600 Mobile Phone User Guides : Direct Translation Cases

Subtitling Strategies Of Translation Of Maleficent Movie Into Indonesian

A Comparative Translation Technique Analysis Of Two Indonesian Subtitles “Life Of Pi” Movie

The analysis of translation procedures in subtitle Hachiko Movie

Translation procedures and meaning equivalence in subtitle of animated movie monster university

TRANSLATION PROCEDURES OF CULTURE BOUND WORDS USED IN VISITOR GUIDE OF JAWA TENGAH.

The translation procedures of culture specific terms in on foreign shores

Dokumen yang Anda mencari sudah siap untuk unduhkan