Functional Equivalence The Discussion of Procedures to Translate Culture-Specific Terms in On

75 someone’s road trip. The occurrence of the word kijang in the ST can be seen in the following fragments. ST: ... Dan, ah seekor kijang melintas jalan dalam gerimis hujan Lalu menghilang Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 58 In the ST, it can be seen that a kijang crosses the street when rain falls, yet, it disappears eventually. The word kijang in the ST refers to a kind of antelope, which looks like a deer with a smaller body as discussed in page 51. The animal it refers is familiar in the SL culture, not only literally but also non- literally since it is also depicted as a brand symbol of a commercial car. Thereafter, McGlynn translates that word into deer in the TT; a word that has close relation to kijang. Thus, it implies that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence 1988: 83 to translate this term as seen in this fragment. TT: ... And, yes, a deer, too flitting across the road to disappear in the drizzling rain Poems from the Solarium, On Foreign Shores, p. 59 The functional equivalence procedure is applied to neutralize the word kijang from its cultural element based on its previously-discussed defintion and replace it with a near TL equivalent which is functionally known by the readers of the TT. The word deer in the TT refers to “a hoofed grazing or browsing animal with branched bony antlers that is shed annually and typically borne only by the 76 male” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishdeer which is functionally acceptable to replace the word kijang. In the definition in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, kijang is defined as a horned animal which looks like a deer. d. Procedure to translate belibis in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest The word belibis is found in Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, which is translated into Full Moon in the Midwest by McGlynn in the TL. The original poem consists of five verses marked as five pantun with unique rhyme patterns. The word belibis refers to the birds found in the fifth verse of this poem. The detail of its occurrence can be seen in the fragment below. ST: Danau yang di sana Seribu burung belibis Lereng pohon pina Angin pun gerimis Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, On Foreign Shores, p. 78 The word belibis in this poem refers to a kind of bird which flies in a large flock. In the ST, the poem is in a form of pantun See Page 58, but, in the TT, the poem is in a free form which still accommodates the meaning of each verse in the ST. Therefore, the translation of the poem is not limited to the stylistic form of pantun. The translation of the word belibis in the TT Full Moon in the Midwest can be seen in the following fragment. TT: On the lake beyonds A thousand ducks The hillside pines Even the wind is wet Full Moon in the Midwest, On Foreign Shores, p.79 77 The word belibis is translated into ducks in the TT. The omission of the pantun form in Full Moon in the Midwest makes this translation possible. The word belibis in the ST carries cultural element; while the word ducks in the TT does not carry cultural element since it bears universal element. Therefore, the possible procedure used in that translation is Newmark’s functional equivalence 1988: 83, which deculturalises the word belibis and replaces it with a culture- free term. This procedure is possibly used with a consideration that belibis is defined as a bird which looks like duck See Page 52. In addition, the consideration that belibis is not familiar in the TL culture and duck is more recognized in the TL is possibly taken into account to functionally replace belibis with ducks in the TT. e. Procedure to translate gayam in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word gayam is found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, which tells about the experience of Yatman’s uncle, a character in this poem, when he was in The United States; the characters tells it in a humorous way by making comparison between the view of The United States with the view of his hometown in Bantul, Yogyakarta. The word gayam can be seen in this fragment. ST: ... Setidak-tidaknya Aku tidak merasa seperti Columbus Sekalipun mungkin sekali Akulah orang pertama Dari sekian petani penanam gayam Dari sekian yang berincome 150 U.S. Dollar Per kapita per annum Yang menyeberangi samudera Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 128 78 The word gayam in the ST refers to Indonesian local cultivated fruit which is edible See Page 53. Thus, gayam belongs to a culture-specific term. However, gayam is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment below. TT: ... Leastways I didn’t feel like Columbus Though very likely I was the first Of the many fruit farmers From a country with an income Of US 150 per capita Per year To have crossed this very ocean Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 129 In the TT, gayam is replaced by a general word fruit instead of being replaced by a more specific word or an adaptation of the word gayam. The character is still a farmer and still cultivates fruit, yet, McGlynn does not specify what fruit he cultivates. Thus, the original meaning remains the same on the TT. In translating the word gayam, McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure Newmark, 1988: 83. Based on Newmark 1988: 83, this procedure is “neutralizing” the word gayam from its cultural element and “generalizing” it. This procedure is possibly employed with a consideration that the word gayam literally refers to a kind of fruit growing in Indonesia See Page 53, which is not recognized in the TL. Therefore, a word which is culturally- neutral and able to accommodate the meaning of gayam in the TL environment is needed. 79 f. Procedure to translate kangkung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word kangkung is also found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik—a poem about an Indonesian farmer who crosses the ocean and goes to The United States. Literally, it refers to a kind of Inocarpus tree growing in water See Page 53. In the ST—Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, the word can be found in this fragment. ST: Sambil nembang bapak pocung Mbokku cukup melenggang ke pasar Pundong Kalau butuh kacang kangkung Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130 In the ST, kangkung refers to a kind of vegetable the character’s mother wants to buy in Pundong market. With peanuts, the equivalence of kacang, kangkung is a kind of vegetable sold in markets. However, kangkung is often associated to red water spinach, although both of them belong to different species of Inocarpus family. In the TT, kangkung is not translated literally or transferred immediately. McGlynn translates it into spinach—a culturally-neutral item which has immediate association to the word kangkung as an Inocarpus tree. However, it still refers to a kind of vegetable sold in Pundong market along with peanuts. Thus, the original meaning of it in the TT can still be accommodated by the translation. The translation of the word kangkung in the TT can be seen in the following fragment. 80 TT: As I sing my ancient verses All mother must do is going to Pundong market If its peanuts and spinach we need Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131 From the comparison between ST and TT, it is apparent that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence procedure 1988: 83 to translate the word kangkung into spinach. Based on Newmark 1988: 83, this procedure “generalises the SL word” kangkung and provides a culture-free word in the TL. This procedure is possibly used in consideration that spinach, “ an edible Asian plant of the goosefoot family, with large dark green leaves which are widely eaten as a vegetable,” www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishspinach fits the definition of the word kangkung See Page 53 in the SL. g. Procedure to translate kerupuk in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco The word kerupuk belongs to food sub-category of of material culture. This word is found in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, which is translated into The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco. Kerupuk is local Indonesian chips which are made of flour dough with particular seasoning See Page 55. In the ST, the word kerupuk can be found in the fragment below. ST: Amerika mengeluarkan bunyi kerupuk kentang kering yang dikunyah lambat-lambat Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 72 81 The word kerupuk in the ST refers to dry chips made of flour dough with potato mixture non-literally chewed by America to produce crunch sound. However, in the translation of the poem which is taken from point of view of a man who is bizarre with the technology in The United States, kerupuk is replaced with a general word, chips, which is more common in the target culture. The translation of the word kerupuk in the TT can be seen in the fragment below. TT: America sounds like crispy potato chips being chewed slowly The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 73 In the TT, the word kerupuk is translated into chips—a general word that functionally describes what kind of food kerupuk is in the TL culture. Chips is the plural form of the word chip, a noun referring to “a long rectangular piece of deep-fried potato” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishchip . Naturally, kerupuk, as a kind of food, cannot be found in the TL culture, yet, the word chips resembles its function and form. Although the word kerupuk is translated differently from the real reference, the original meaning does not change since chip is a kind of food that can produce crunch sound the way kerupuk produces. The original word kerupuk is deculturalised and replaced by a culturally-neutral word which functionally represents the meaning of which to accommodate the original meaning in the ST to be reproduced in the TT. Therefore, the procedure employed to translate this word is functional equivalence proposed by Newmark 1988: 83. 82 h. Procedure to translate getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The word getek in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik is a culture-specific term which belongs to transport sub-category of the category of material culture. It refers to a kind of water transportation used by a legendary Javanese character, Joko Tingkir. Getek is a kind of water transportation structured of bamboos tied up together functioned as a flat boat or a raft See Page 56. Getek in this poem is used to liken how history floats and oscillates like the boat sailed by Joko Tingkir which is drifted away by a female crocodile. The occurrence of the word getek can be seen in the following fragment. ST: … Ah. Ah. Melintasi Atlantik Sejarah mengambang Bagai geteknya Joko Tingkir Digoyang goyang pinggul buaya wanita Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132 The word getek in the TT refers to particular water transportation. In the TT, that word is translated into raft, a water transportation which is known overseas. The word raft has an immediate association to the word getek as a mean of transportation. The former is literally defined as a noun which refers to “ a flat buoyant structure of timber or other materials fastened together, used as a boat or floating platform” hhttp:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishraft ; this definition is similar to the definition of getek discussed previously See Page 56. The occurrence of the word raft to translate getek in the TT can be seen on the following fragment. 83 TT: … Psshaw Crossing the Atlantic History floats Like Joko Tingkir’s raft Rocking on the back of a crocodile woman Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133 The word raft functionally replaces the word getek in the translation and in the generating of meaning in the TT. Rather than transferring the whole word getek or explaining it, McGlynn prefers to use functional equivalence which is proposed by Newmark 1988: 83. For this word, McGlynn does not generalize the ST word, yet, he finds a culturally-neutral term known in the TL culture to translate it. i. Procedure to translate megatruh in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik Megatruh is one of three culture-specific terms found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture. Literally, megatruh refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat songs. The occurrence of that word in the ST can be seen below. ST: ... Namun di atas Atlantik ini pula Kudengar biyungku menangis Dalam megatruh blues Yang mengusik suarga Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130 In the ST, megatruh refers to a form of macapat composition which is usually used to express disappointment or deep sadness with unique rhyming patterns See Page 59. The character on this poem vaguely hears the sound of his 84 mother cries blends with megatruh and blues. However, McGlynn translates the word megatruh very differently in the TT as seen in the following fragment. TT: ... But above the Atlantic I heard as well My grandmother crying In traditional Javanese blues That could not have but touched heaven Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131 In the TT, the word megatruh is translated into an adjectival phrase traditional Javanese. It appears that McGlynn uses the functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark 1988: 83 to translate that word and transfer the meaning of which into SL. The word megatruh does not have word-for-word equivalence in the SL; moreover, a cultural equivalene may not accommodate the uniqueness of megatruh in the SL due to the absence of similar kind of song in the TL culture. Since megatruh refers to a traditional song in Javanese culture which lasts for excessive period, the translation done by McGlynn functionally fits the definition of megatruh. Therefore, functional equivalence allows the translator to generalize the word in the ST and express it in the TT with a more understandable term. j. Procedure to translate bapak pocung in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik The term bapak pocung is also in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Bapak pocung, literally refers to a form of macapat composition which is usually used to tell spoof, anecdote, and riddle. The occurrence of bapak pocung in the ST is illustrated in this fragment. 85 ST: Sambil nembang bapak pocung Mbokku cukup melenggang ke pasar Pundong Kalau butuh kacang kangkung Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 130 In the ST, bapak pocung is described as a title of song that the character sings while his mother goes to Pundong market. Furthermore, this term is defined as a form of macapat composition to express happiness See Page 60; this definition explains what kind of song is sung by the character’s mother in the ST. However, this term is translated differently in the TT as seen in the fragment below. TT: As I sing my ancient verses All mother must do is going to Pundong market If its peanuts and spinach we need Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 131 In the TT, the term bapak pocung is translated into the phrase my ancient verse. According to dictionary, the word verses is defined as a noun which means “ writing arranged with a metrical rhythm, typically having a rhyme” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishverse , while the word ancient is defined as an adjective which means “belonging to the very distant past” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishancient . Hence, the phrase my ancient verse in the TT refers to a kind of writing with metrical rhythm coming from the distant past—known by the character in the poem. Functionally, 86 it refers to the same thing the term bapak pocung referring in the ST, yet, uses common vocabulary in the TL. Therefore, the procedure employed for this term is a functional equivalence proposed by Newmark 1988: 83. The functional equivalence in this translation is employed to deculturalise the word bapak pocung—neutralizing it without altering the general meaning. It is employed because the SL term does not have TL equivalence. Thus, it applies what Newmark states about functional equivalence which “deculturalises a cultural word” 1988: 83. k. Procedure to translate dandanggula in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik Dandanggula is also one of three culture-specific terms found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik which belongs to the category of social culture. Literally, dandanggula also refers to one kind of traditional Javanese macapat songs that expresses joyfulness or victory See Page 61. The occurrence of the term bapak pocung in the ST can be seen in the fragment below. ST: Dalam tetembangan dandanggula Apa yang bisa kukerjakan selama ini Cuma nanem, matun, panen Hanya terkadang saja ada waktu Buat semadi Dan baca sajak Li Po dan Tu Fu Sambil latihan yoga dan Tai Chi Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, On Foreign Shores, p. 132 In the ST, the word dandanggula refers to a kind of macapat song telling about what the character in the poem can do all the time, such as cultivating, meditating, reading verses, and practicing yoga as well as practicing Tai Chi. It corresponds the dictionary definition of dandanggula as a form of macapat 87 composition to express joyfulness as depicted in the activities the character can do. In Indonesian-English dictionary, this word does not have corresponding equivalence in the TL. Even though the word dandanggula has no word-for-word equivalence in the TL, McGlynn is able to transfer its meaning in the TT by employing a procedure to translate it into the TL. In the TT, Crossing the Atlantic, the word dandanggula is translated in a similar way like the word bapak pocung in the same poem. The translation of this word can be seen in the fragment below. TT: As I sing my ancient songs What is it that I can do But plant and weed and harvest And, sometimes, when there’s time A little meditation And reading the poems of Li Po and Tu Fu While practicing yoga and tai chi Crossing the Atlantic, On Foreign Shores, p. 133 In the TT, the word dandanggula is translated into the phrase my ancient song. The procedure employed to translate it is similar to the one employed to translate the term bapak pocung. Practically, the translation in the TT refers to some songs that have been lasting since the ancient time; it also refers to the definition of the word dandanggula in a general and neutral way. Generalizing a cultural word and neutralizing it are characteristics of the functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark 1988: 83. l. Procedure to translate nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu The term nina bobo is found twice in On Foreign Shores. However, those two nina bobo have different form but belong to the same part of speech. In 88 Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, nina bobo is a noun which belongs to the category of social culture. Its occurrence can be seen in the following fragment. ST: - berbaring tengah siang seekor burung perkutut bernyanyi nina bobo Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, On Foreign Shores, p. 134 In the ST, nina bobo refers to a song sung by a turtledove while lying down in the middle of the noon. Furthermore, that song actually refers to a title of song which is popularly used as a lullaby in Indonesian culture See Page 62. In a brief way, McGlynn translates nina bobo practically as seen in this fragment. TT: - napping in the middle of the day a turtledove sings a lullaby Honolulu Impression, On Foreign Shores, p. 135 In the TT, the word nina bobo is translated into the word lullaby. This translation is very functional since the culture-specific term in the ST is translated into a word which is culturally neutral and understandable in the TL culture. The word lullaby in the TT defines the meaning of the coined word nina bobo in the TL culture as “ a quiet, gentle song sung to send a child to sleep” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishlullaby . Since the word lullaby is culture-free, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional equivalence by Newmark, which neutralizes cultural word and replaces it with a culturally-neutral term 1988: 83. 89 m. Procedure to translate ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi The term ninabobo in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the one of two nina bobo terms found in On Foreign Shores. In addition, it is an orthographical variant of the word nina bobo found in Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik. Ninabobo in this poem is also a noun which refers to the kind of song sung to lull someone to sleep See Page 62. The occurrence of this word in the ST can be seen in the following fragment. ST: ... Menjelang tidur kupahat sinar bulan yang letih itu yang menyelinapkan dalam semak-semak salju terakhir ninabobo yang menentramkan, kupahat padanya sebelum matahari memasang kaca berkilauan Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, On Foreign Shores, p. 160 In the ST, figurative expressions are used frequently. However, the culture-specific term ninabobo in the ST does not belong to figurative expressions. In this poem, the word ninabobo refers to a title of song used as lullaby which is soothing. The same as the word nina bobo in Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, the word ninabobo in this poem refers to the same reference. Therefore, the translation of it in Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is the same as the translation of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu—as seen in the following fragment. TT: ... As sleep approaches I carve the listless moon’s light hiding in the bushes of the last snow I carve on it a soothing lullaby before the sun erects its shimmering mirror Early Spring Morning, On Foreign Shores, p. 161 The same as in the TT of Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, the word ninabobo in the TT of Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi is translated into lullaby. 90 Similarly, the procedure employed by McGlynn in translating this item is a functional equivalence by Newmark 1988: 83. In this translation, McGlynn also strips off the cultural element in the word ninabobo, and then replaces it with a neutral item lullaby which functionally fits the meaning of the word ninabobo in the TL culture. n. Procedure to translate gender in Hadi’s Kidung Putih The word gender is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the category of material culture in accordance to its reference as a music instrument. This term can be found in Hadi’s Kidung Putih. Literally, gender is a traditional music instrument in Javanese culture which is also one instrument of gamelan set; its appearance looks like a xylophone with a kind of sounding tube See Page 63. In the ST, the occurrence of the word gender is illustrated in the following fragment. ST: Sebelum gugur atas daunan itu pusingan debu bersilengking pada kayu musim panas datang berduaan dengan angin si gender bunga-bunga menahan bibirnya dari ciuman Hadi’s Kidung Putih, On Foreign Shores, p. 154 In the ST, the word gender refers to one of gamelan instrument whose sound is carried by the wind during summer. In the TL, the reference of the word gender is unknown. Although cultural equivalence of this term is available in the form of xylophone, McGlynn does not use this kind of equivalence. He generalizes the word gender and uses a cultural word which is universally known to maintain the original sense. The translation of the word gender can be seen in the following fragment. 91 TT: Before the fall of the leaves the whirl of the dust whistling ‘round branches the summer arrives, the gamelan resounds flowers avert their lips from kisses White Ballad, On Foreign Shores, p. 155 In the TT, McGlynn translates the word gender into the word gamelan. The word gamelan, although it carries cultural element, is known in the TL as a set of music instrument from Indonesia. It is proven by the fact that gamelan can be found in the TL dictionary; in dictionary, gamelan is defined as “a traditional instrumental ensemble in Java and Bali, including many bronze percussion instruments” http:www.oxfordditionaries.comdefinitionenglishgamelan . Thus, it is apparent that McGlynn generalizes the word gender to find out a general word that covers the definition of it; this act of translation follows the procedure of functional equivalence proposed by Newmark 1988: 83 which generalizes a cultural word and replaces it with a recognized word in the TL without altering the original meaning in the SL. The word gamelan is a general word to explain the specific word gender that becomes part of it; therefore, to do this replacement, it is apparent that McGlynn employs Newmark’s functional equivalence. o. Procedure to translate kendang in Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis As a traditional music instrument, the word kendang belongs to the category of social culture proposed by Newmark 1988: 95, 98-99. Literally, this term refers to a Javanese music instrument resembling drums covered with leather See Page 63. The occurrence of kendang in the ST can be seen in this fragment. 92 ST: dicarinya usus si mati setelah kolera yang panjang menyerang dari laut membentuk bulan jadi jingga dalam gugusan angin laut yang beku, tiada ubahnya seperti para dewa yang putus asa berpesta di angkasa riuh memukul kendangnya ke rimba- rimba Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, On Foreign Shores, p. 162 In the ST, the seeking for the bowels of the dead by nightingale after a long cholera epidemic is described like an attack from the ocean or a feast of desperate gods. Kendang refers to a drum or percussion played by gods upon the woods. Similarly, McGlynn translates the word kendang according to how it is played. The translation of this term can be seen in the fragment below. TT: they search the bowels of the dead after the invasion of cholera from the sea turned the moon orange in a clump of frozen sea winds, no different from the gods who without hope celebrate in the heavens and beat their drums in the forest. Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, On Foreign Shores, p. 163 In the TT, the word kendang is translated into drums. From that translation, it is implied that McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark 1988: 83. From the translation in the TT, it can be seen that McGlynn strips the cultural element from the word kendang off by generalizing it and replaces it with the general word that covers the original meaning of that word in the ST. The process of bringing out the word drums as the translation of kendang follows Newmark’s principle of functional equivalence 1988: 83. 93 p. Procedure to translate Sekolah Rakyat in Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco Based on Newmark 1988: 101, historical term also belongs to organsiations, ideas, and customs category of culture-specific terms. As a historical institutional term, Sekolah Rakyat belongs to which. That term refers to a level of education in Indonesia in the past; that level equals to Sekolah Dasar or elementary school in the present See Page 66. In the ST, the occurrence of the term Sekolah Rakyat can be seen in the fragment below. ST: … ketika aku masih bercelana pendek dan asyik menghafalkan nama-nama hebat dengan huruf c, v, x, dan y pada pelajaran ilmu bumi di Sekolah Rakyat partikelir. Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 70 In the ST, it is apparent that Sekolah Rakyat refers to an educational institutional term—a level of education in which the character in the poem memorized some names of westerners in geography and still wore short pants in school. From the information in the ST and the definition discussed previously, it can be concluded that Sekolah Rakyat refers to a level of education in Indonesia which equals to elementary school or primary school in the present time. Therefore, McGlynn translates it functionally as seen in the following fragment. TT: : …when I was still in grade school uniform and busy memorizing the great names beginning with the letters c, v, x, and y for my geography class at a private primary school. The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, On Foreign Shores, p. 71 In the TT, it can be seen that McGlynn translates Sekolah Rakyat into primary school. That translation implies that McGlynn adopts the principle of 94 functional equivalence procedure proposed by Newmark 1988: 83 as he uses a culturally neutral term to replace the term in the ST. Furthermore, Newmark also states that functional or descriptive term with as much descriptive details as required is also needed to transfer historical term 1988: 101. Therefore, the application of functional equivalence in this translation is considered appropriate. q. Procedure to translate bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia The culture-specific term bersila in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is one of two of two bersila words found in On Foreign Shores. This term belongs to the category of social culture. The function and the meaning of the word bersila in this poem is exactly the same with the one in Surachman’s Hari Tua Mister Gilbert. The occurrence of this term in Budianta’s Instrumentalia is portrayed in the following fragment. ST: Kuli yang miskin itu Kini bercerita lagi sambil bersila … Budianta’s Instrumentalia, On Foreign Shores, p. 174 In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture done by the poor coolie while telling stories. From the discussion previously, it is implied that the coolie sits with his legs crossing. His sitting posture resembles a meditation posture viewed from an Indonesian point of view. Although, both bersila terms in this anthology refer to the same posture, McGlynn translates them differently. The translation of bersila in the TT can be seen in the following fragment. 95 TT: The poor old coolie Cross-legged, speaks … American Instrumental, On Foreign Shores, p. 175 The word cross-legged functionally defines bersila literally, yet, it poses as the equivalence of bersila in the TT. From the translation, it can be seen that for this term, McGlynn employs a functional equivalence procedure as he neutralizes the word bersila from its cultural element. Consequently, a culturally neutral term cross-legged is used to translate bersila; cross-legged is a neutral and known term in the TL culture posing as an adjective which refers to a kind of sitting position “ with the legs crossed at the ankles and the knees bent outwards” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishcross-legged . Therefore, a conclusion can be drawn that McGlynn has employed a functional equivalence procedure Newmark, 1988: 83. Based on the analysis, the researcher discovered 17 uses of functional equivalence procedures to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. Functional equivalence is used to help translating six terms that belong to the category of ecology; two terms that belong to the category of material culture; seven terms that belong to the category of social culture; one term that belongs to the category of organisation, idea, custom; and one term that belongs to the category of gestures and habits. The distribution of how functional equivalence is used can be seen in the following Table 4.7. 96 Table 4.7. The Use of Functional Equivalence Procedure No ST TT Category 1 Daun ketapang Sastrowardoyo’s Dan Kematian Makin Akrab, p. 6 Leaves And Death Grows More Intimately, p. 7 Ecology 2 Garuda Rendra’s Rick dari Corona, p. 54 Eagle Rick from Corona, p. 55 Ecology 3 Kijang Surachman’s Sajak-Sajak dari Solarium, p. 58 Deer Poems from the Solarium, p. 59 Ecology 4 Belibis Ismail’s Pantun Terang Bulan di Midwest, p. 78 Ducks Full Moon in the Midwest, p. 79 Ecology 5 Gayam Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 128 Fruit Crossing the Atlantic, p. 129 Ecology 6 Kangkung Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130 Spinach Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131 Ecology 7 Kerupuk Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 72 Chips The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 73 Material Culture 8 Getek Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132 Raft Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133 Material Culture 9 Megatruh Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130 Traditional Javanese Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131 Social Culture 10 Bapak pocung Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 130 My ancient verses Crossing the Atlantic, p. 131 Social Culture 11 dandanggula Yatman’s Melintasi Atlantik, p. 132 My ancient songs Crossing the Atlantic, p. 133 Social Culture 12 Nina bobo Yatman’s Impresi Honolulu, p. 134 Lullaby Honolulu Impression, p. 135 Social Culture 13 Ninabobo Hadi’s Dini Hari Musim Semi, p. 160 Lullaby Early Spring Morning, p. 161 Social Culture 14 Gender Hadi’s Kidung Putih, p. 154 Gamelan White Ballad, p. 155 Social Culture 15 Kendang Hadi’s Landskap 1971 untuk Angela Davis, p. 162 Drums Landscape for Angela Davis, 1971, p. 162 Social Culture 16 Sekolah Rakyat Ismail’s Trem Berklenengan di Kota San Fransisco, p. 70 Primary school The Clatter of Cable Cars in San Fransisco, p. 71 Organisations, Ideas, Customs 17 Bersila Budianta’s Instrumentalia, p. 174 Cross-legged American Instrument, p. 175 Gestures and Habits 97

2. Cultural Equivalence

Based on Newmark 1988:82, cultural equivalence is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. This translation procedure is known as ‘adaptation’ in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model 1958, as cited in Venuti, 2000: 86. It is used when the situation being referred to by the the SL message is unknown in the TL culture. Based on the analysis, the researcher found out that cultural equivalence or adaptation is used three times. This procedure is used to translate one material culture term, one social culture term, and one gestures and habits term. In this section, the researcher is going to discuss the use of cultural equivalence to translate culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. a. Procedure to translate kopiah in Suryadi’s Central Park The word kopiah is a culture-specific term which belongs to clothes sub- category of the category of material culture. This word is found in Suryadi’s Central Park, which is eventually translated into Central Park. The occurrence of this word in the ST is illustrated in the following fragment taken from Suryadi’s Central Park. ST: Dan seorang bishop menawarkan ice juice Lengkap dengan pakaian kebesarannya Perutnya gendut kebanyakan keju dan anggur Kopiahnya bertengger di atas kepalanya Suryadi’s Central Park, On Foreign Shores, p. 164 In the ST, the word kopiah refers to a headdress worn by the bishop. Meanwhile, in the previous discussion, kopiah refers to a headdress worn by Muslim men as a national identity See Page 57. Thus, it may also mean that 98 Suryadi, the poet, sees the headdress worn by the bishop the way he sees the hat as the identity of Muslim men. However, the word kopiah is translated differently in the TT as illustrated in the following fragment. TT: Complete in holy vestments A bishop plies sno-cone His stomach massive from excess wine and cheese His miter askew on top of his head Central Park, p. 165 In the TT, the bishop wears a miter rather than a kopiah as depicted in the ST. Thus, the word kopiah is translated into miter in the TT. This translation is considered acceptable since miter also refers to a headdress. The word miter literally means “ a tall headdress worn by bishops and senior abbots as a symbol of office, tapering to a point at front and back with a deep cleft between” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishmitre . Therefore, a hat in the ST is translated into another hat in the TT. The procedure employed to translate the word kopiah into miter is known as cultural equivalence Newmark, 1988: 83 or adaptation Vinay Darbelnet, 1958. Vinay and Darbelnet 1958 claim this procedure as “an effort of creating cultural equivalence between two different situations.” In this procedure, a translator translates an SL cultural word with a TL cultural word. In this case, the cultural equivalence procedure allows McGlynn to translate kopiah, a cultural word in the SL into miter, a headdress known in the TL to be worn by a bishop. This procedure is reasonable to employ since the word kopiah is unknown in the TL, yet, there is a word miter which have greater pragmatic effect in the TL. 99 b. Procedure to translate sabung ayam in Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis Sabung ayam refers to a traditional game in Indonesia in which people engaging two roosters in a fight. As a kind of leisure activity, it belongs to the category of social culture. The occurrence of sabung ayam can be seen in the following fragment. ST: Kita tak menemukan yang beda, ternyata Bunga-bunga seperti ini juga ada di Vietnam ketika bersin, jahitan di lambung terasa nyeri Apa? Permainan nyawa? Dewa-dewa di pulau ini tidak membenci sabung ayam. Nadjira’s Sepasang Turis, On Foreign Shores, p. 138 In the ST, this word also refers to a traditional game which is allowed by gods of particular tropical area See Page 62. Although this term does not have direct word-for-word equivalence the TL culture, the translation for this term can be done by McGlynn. This translation is possible because there is a cultural concept in the TL that can accommodate the SL original meaning of sabung ayam in the TL. The translation of the term sabung ayam in the TT can be seen in the following fragment. TT: We cannot tell the difference, in fact There are flowers like this in Viet Nam, too sneezing, he winces from the stitches in his side What is this? A fight to the finish? The gods on this island are not averse to cockfights A Tourist Couple, On Foreign Shores, p. 139 In the TT, the term sabung ayam in the ST is translated into cockfights. Based on dictionary, the term cockfight or cockfighting is defined as a kind of “ sport illegal in the UK and some other countries of setting two cocks to fight each other” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishcockfighting . 100 Hence, those two terms in the ST and the TT are similar and both pose as cultural equivalence to each other. The SL cultural word is translated into by a TL cultural word which is known by the speaker of TL. Therefore, it can be concluded that McGlynn employs Newmark’s cultural equivalence Newmark, 1988: 82-83, which is also known as adaptation in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model 1958, as cited in Machali, 2000:6. c. Procedure to translate bersila in Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg The word bersila occurs twice in On Foreign Shores; each occurs in different poems. One of those words can be found in Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg. It is an Indonesian culture-specific term which belongs to the category of gestures and habits. In the ST, the occurrence of this word can be seen in this fragment. ST: Ia kini duduk bersila di bangku taman kotapraja mungkin semadi mungkin aku tak mengerti karena ia berkata: “Di Vietnam tak ada orang mati Tak ada Vietnam dan orang tak mati.” Mohamad’s Potret Taman untuk Allen Ginsberg, On Foreign Shores, p. 116 In the ST, the word bersila refers to a sitting posture acted by someone on a bench in the city park. In the previous discussion, bersila is defined as an act of sit with legs crossed See Page 68. In the TT, the cultural word bersila is translated into another cultural world as seen in the following fragment. 101 TT: Now he sits in lotus position on a bench in the city park in meditation, maybe maybe I don’t know because he said “In Viet Nam there are no dead There is no Nam, there are no dead” Picture of A City Park for Allen Ginsberg, On Foreign Shores, p. 117 In the TT, McGlynn translates the word bersila into a TL term in lotus position. Both terms indicates a sitting posture acted by the character in the poem. The term lotus position, or also known as, lotus posture refers to “ a cross-legged position for meditation, with the feet resting on the thighs” http:www.oxforddictionaries.comdefinitionenglishlotus-position . This word accommodates TL readers to understand the original meaning of which. By using TL cultural word to replace cultural word, McGlynn has already employed cultural equivalence Newmark, 1988: 82-83, or adaptation in Vinay and Darbelnet’s model 1958, as cited in Machali, 2000: 6. Cultural equivalence is used three times in translating culture-specific terms in On Foreign Shores. This procedure is used to translate one material culture term, one social culture term, and one gesture and habit term. The distribution of this procedure can be seen in Table 4.8. Table 4.8. The Use of Cultural Equivalence Procedure