31 Vinay and Darbelnet’s and Newmark’s model of translation procedures
are described as follows:
a. Borrowing
Based on Vinay and Darbelnet 1958, borrowing is the simplest of all translation procedures in Venuti, 2000: 85. Borrowing is done by directly using
foreign terms without formal and semantic modification, e.g., déjà vu borrowed from French into English, orang-utan borrowed from Bahasa Indonesia to
English, and tequila borrowed from Mexican Spanish to English. The decision to borrow SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour or
taste is a matter of style and consequently of the message.
b. Calque
Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which TL borrows an expression form of SL, but then translates literally each of its elements into TL.
This calque may results in 1 lexical calque, in which keeps the structure of the TL, but introduces a new mode of translation, e.g., the calque in translating
compliments of the season from English into compliments de la saison in French, or 2 structural calque, which introduces a new construction into TL, e.g., science
fiction in English, which is translated into science fiction in French. This procedure is identical to Newmark’s through-translation and loan translation
Newmark, 1988: 84, which translates text by substituting linear element of a language into another. Newmark 1988: 84 emphasizes that calque or through-
translation is only used when the terms are already recognised terms. The most obvious examples of calque or through-translations are the names of international
32 organisations, which are known by their acronyms, which may remain English
and internationalisms UNESCO, FAO, OPEC.
c. Literal translation
Literal translation or also known as word for word translation is a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text
Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti, 2000: 86, e.g., the clause Saya suka film in SL Bahasa Indonesia is translated into I like movie in TL English, or the
phrase Mereka adalah polisi is translated into They are police.
d. Transposition
Transposition involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958, in Venuti,
2000: 88. Newmark 1988: 85 also adds that it involves a change in grammar from SL to TL, as he calls this procedure a shift by borrowing the same term
introduced by Catford.
e. Modulation
Vinay and Darbelnet 1958 define modulation as a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective, and very often of category of thought in
Venuti, 2000: 89, and Newmark, 1988: 88-89
f. Equivalence
Vinay and Darbelnet also state that equivalence involves substituting SL text with its functional equivalence in the TL. In other words, the same situation
can be rendered by the two texts of SL and TL using completely different stylistic and structural methods. The common cases of this procedure are onomatopoeic
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